t LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. I 



[SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT.] 

# 

! UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ! 



MORRIS'S GRAMMAR. 

A PHILOSOPHICAL AND PRACTICAL 

Grammar of the English Language, 

DIALOGICALLY AND PROGRESSIVELY 
ARRANGED ; 

IN WHICH EVERY WORD IS PARSED ACCORDING TO ITS USE. 

■."' 

' PROF. I. J. MORRIS, A. M. 



" Speak to a child according to its capacity." 

We can teach what is unknown, only by a comparison with that 
which is known. 

Sensible men will examine before they judge; prudent men will 
understand before they approve or condemn. 

Though experience is the best teacher, demonstration is the best 
proof. 



STEREOTYPED EDITION, REVISED, REWRITTEN. AND ENLARGED. 



NEW YORK: 
MILLER & HOLMAN, PRINTERS AND STEREOTYPERS. 

1857. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, by 

Prof. I. J. MORRIS, A. M., 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
Southern District of New York. 



MILLKR & HOLMAN, 

Printers and Stereotypers, N. Y. 



PREFACE 



It is often said that English Grammar is a lifetime study, and 
it is a fact not to be disguised, that students usually prosecute 
this branch of science for years, to little practical purpose, as 
grammar pupils rarely speak or write more correctly than others 
untaught. Now, grammar is unworthy of a lifetime study ; life 
is too important, and labor and money are too precious to be thus 
invested, or, rather, wasted. " Time is money." — Dr. Franklin. 

Is it not a little curious, that English Grammar should be a 
lifetime study ? If so, who has yet mastered it ? Who is compe- 
tent to teach it ? One would make rather an unprofitable effort, 
trying to teach what he did not understand himself. Would it not 
be more than unkind to require children to recite, and expect them 
to comprehend, what neither teachers nor authors understand, or 
can explain. 

Many confound the grammar with the language. I apprehend, 
however,- that they differ widely ; the grammar simply embodies, 
not the language, but, digest-like, the laws of the language, which 
are usually comprised within a small compass — the smallest of our 
text-books. Then, I repeat, why should grammar be a lifetime 
study ? Is it for the want of application or capacity on the part 
of pupils? Certainly not, as they generally succeed so well in 
mastering many other departments of learning. 

Are the teachers in fault ? They are not unskillful in imparting 
a knowledge of other sciences ; then, this failure is not owing to 
any deficiency on their part. 

Grammars are not so voluminous, they are usually small books ; 
and, what is still more remarkable, it requires but a small portion 
of one of these little books to set forth all the principles of the 
language, much the largest portion being employed in defense of 



IV PREFACE. 

the peculiarities of the system, and no inconsiderable space being 
covered by exercises for parsing and correction ; thus, not leaving 
more than twenty-five, thirty, or forty pages at furthest, to exhibit 
the principles of the language ; so, evidently, the difficulty does 
not consist in the immense field to be traversed. 

Is the nature of the study so abstruse that it is insurmountably 
difficult for instructors to impart, and impossible for learners to 
gain, a competent knowledge ? If so, in what does this insupera- 
ble difficulty consist ? Where is it found ? Why is the study of 
grammar so hard ? Is the difficulty to be detected in the intrinsic 
nature of the subject ? 

Having taught children, that man, book, Boston, etc., are nouns, 
being names, is it difficult for them to perceive that all names, 
both of animate and inanimate things, for the same reason, are 
nouns ; and thus at a glance be able to parse, as nouns, the names 
of all things that they can see, hear, smell, taste, touch, or even 
think of ; thus learning the classification of hundreds and thousands 
of words instantly. 

" John goes to school, he learns fast, and the teacher likes him." 
He is a pronoun, being a substitute for the noun, John ; and him 
is also a pronoun for the same reason. Now, what is more easy 
to teach than that any, and all words, used in the place of nouns, 
are pronouns. Goes is a verb, because it tells what John does, 
and agrees with its subject, John, in number and person ; for 
the same reason learns and likes are verbs, and all words similar- 
ly used must be verbs ; then how easy it is to distinguish verbs 
from all other parts of speech, notwithstanding, this is usually 
considered the chief difficulty in parsing. 

" He learns fast." Fast is an adverb, because it qualifies the 
verb learns. So well, finely, slowly, rapidly, and any, and all 
other words qualifying learns, or any other word of verbal mean- 
ing, must, for the same reason, be adverbs. And, as this is true of 
no other class of words, it is obvious, that there can be no serious 
obstacle in distinguishing adverbs from all other words. 

And, in the example just taken, is called a conjunctive (con- 
junction), because it simply connects the sentences, "he learns 
fast — the teacher likes him." This is applicable to no other part 
of speech ; hence, it must be equally easy to distinguish conjunc- 
tives. 

From the plain and familiar illustrations just furnished, it must 
be evident to the meanest capacity, that there is nothing much 
easier than to distinguish very readily all the parts of speech, if the 
subject is properly presented. But is it properly presented in 
most of our systems ? This I am disposed to question most seri- 
ously, as I will soon show. It is the common experience of all 
grammar teachers, that the principal labor in learning to parse, if 



PREFACE. V 

not in learning the entire grammar, is chiefly in distinguishing 
the various parts of speech, and not in learning the various sub- 
divisions ; for what is easier than to distinguish the genders, num- 
bers, persons, degrees, tenses, etc. ? So, it is plain, the difficulty 
does not consist in distinguishing the various parts of speech, nor 
in marking their many subdivisions. 

It is a common observation that many, very many, persons, 
having studied grammar, speak and write little, if any, better than 
Others that have not studied it. Why is this ? Is it so difficult to 
comprehend and acquire a practical knowledge of the art of 
speaking and writing correctly ? I heard an Ex-Governor say to a 
friend : " Col., how is your folks ?" Now, could not any child be 
taught that the Governor should have said : " Col., how are your 
folks XV Making is, are, to agree in number with its subject, 
folks. I recollect hearing a very respectable member of Congress 
say to a wagoner : " Boy, what is them shucks worth ?" Could 
not any child comprehend enough of grammar to have suggested to 
the Hon. member, that he should have said : " Boy, what are those 
shucks worth ?" Them being a pronoun — standing in the place 
of a noun — cannot be used to point out a noun. The definitive 
those should have been employed by the Hon. member. Bule iv. 
Definitives point out or limit nouns. Is should have been are, for 
the reasons given in the previous example. 

" She cannot hear good." (Spoken by a College Professor.) 
Say, she cannot hear well, good, being a descriptive, may qualify a 
noun or pronoun, but not a verb ; therefore, the adverb well, not 
the descriptive good, should have been used to qualify the verb hear. 
Bule viii. Adverbs qualify verbs. Could not any child under- 
stand the principles of grammar well enough to make these, and 
any, and all such corrections for the Hon. and literary gentle- 
men ? Then, if both the theory, that is, parsing, and the practi- 
cal part of grammar are so plain and easy, when properly pre- 
sented, why should grammar be a lifetime study ? 

And why should the practical results realized be so trifling ? As 
it has been seen that the difficulty does not consist in the want of 
application or capacity on the part of the learner ; in any want of 
industry or skill on the part of the instructor ; in the size of gram- 
mar books ; in the small part of these little books devoted to the 
principles of the science ; nor in the nature of the subject, as pars- 
ing, and criticism may be, as just shown, so easily comprehended 
and applied. Now the question necessarily recurs — if there is any 
insurmountable difficulty, in what does it consist, and where may 
it be found ? To come to the point, however, the difficulty, I am 
persuaded, consists in the very defective and erroneous systems of 
grammar now in common use. " Our schools suffer no imposition 
so egregious as in the cumbrous grammatical text-books in common 



VI PREFACE. 

use. They serve no earthly purpose except to overtask the verbal 
memory, and to obscure the mental perception of the pupil." — The 
North American Review, 

If our grammatic text-books are cumbrous, let us disencumber 
them. If they overtask the verbal memory, let the memory be re- 
lieved of this task. If they obscure the mental perception of the 
pupil, rather enlighten the same. If they are impositions, why not 
expose them ? " Is an old error better than a new truth." " Prove 
all things, and hold fast that which is good." — Bible. 

" The British grammars of the English language appear to me 
to be very imperfect, and, in some particulars, very erroneous." — 
N. Webster's Gram., p. 4. 

If they are imperfect, why not supply their deficiencies ? If they 
are erroneous, why not expose and explode their errors ? And 
who was, or is, more competent to judge of this than "Webster ? 
Shall we roll sin under our tongues as a sweet morsel? It must 
be sin to teach what we know to be error. May it not be as ser- 
viceable to correct an old error as to teach a new truth ? 

1st Our grammars are defective. "So defective and erroneous 
are the British grammars, and the compilations in the United 
States, formed on their principles, that, without some further helps, 
the construction of many established and legitimate phrases and 
sentences in our language cannot be explained."— Webster's 
Gram., p. 4. 

In Kirkham's Grammar, p. 162, may be found the following sen- 
tences, classed as idioms, anomalies, and intricacies : 

1. " The wall is three feet high." 

2. " His son is eight years old." 

3. " My knife is worth a shilling." 

4. " She is worth him and all his connections" 

5. w He has been there three times " 

6. " The hat cost ten dollars." 

7. " The load weighs a tun" 

8. " The spar measures ninety feet" 

So, I understand this author (Kirkham) to say that, though 
these expressions are correct English, yet our grammars do not 
furnish instructions by which they may be parsed. Then our 
grammars must be very defective in not furnishing rules by which 
these examples may be parsed ; for they are but specimens of hun- 
dreds and thousands of the most familiar sentences daily occurring 
in common intercourse. 

If these, such familiar sentences, cannot be parsed, one might ask 
what can be parsed. 

Why can't these sentences be parsed ? " Dollars, in the 6th ; 
tun, in the 7th ; and feet, in the 8th, have no governing word. 



PREFACE. Vll 

Cost, weighs, and measure being active-intransitive verbs, which 
verbs neither have, nor can have, objects after them." But I am 
disposed to contend that these verbs do have objects after them, 
especially when I see them frequently, as in the examples under 
consideration, governing objects. I must believe my own senses, 
any number of grammars to the contrary notwithstanding. 

" 5. He has been there three times.'' 1 What is difficult in this ? 
" Times is a noun without any governing word." I beg pardon — 
times is not a noun. It is not a name in this sentence ; consequent- 
ly, times needs no governing word. " He has been there often, 
seldom, first, last, frequently," etc. You observe often, seldom, 
first, last, frequently, etc., qualify has been ; three times is used in 
like manner to qualify has been. Words used similarly should be 
parsed similarly. Every word should be parsed according to its 
use ; consequently, three times is an adverbial phrase, used to qualify 
has been. 

In the 3rd, worth is a relative (preposition), and governs shil- 
ling ; so, in like manner, in the 4th example, worth governs him and 
connections. Kule xv. Relatives govern objects. 

w The c wall is three feet high," high is a descriptive, as it de- 
scribes the wall. Three zxAfeet help high describe wall, and are, 
for the same reason, helping descriptives. Feet is not a noun in 
the objective without a governing word, as some would have it. 
How do such persons know it to be in the objective case, if it has 
no governing word? (See Note 29 — Nominative and Objective 
casesj 

" His son is eight years old." Old is a descriptive, eight and 
years are helping descriptives. Is not this parsing easy enough for 
any child's capacity ? What could be easier ? 

Our grammarians have thought it important to teach the number 
of pronouns and verbs, and have, accordingly, furnished rules and co- 
pious exercises to impress this principle upon the student's memory. 
This is all well enough ; but, if it is important to learn the number 
of pronouns and verbs, must it not be equally important to learn 
. and observe the number of nouns ? For the number of pronouns 
and verbs must correspond with that of the nouns ; not knowing 
the one, the other cannot be determined. And, again, in common 
conversation, nouns are as frequently placed in the wrong number 
as pronouns and verbs, hence a double necessity for a rule and co- 
pious exercises to. teach and impress the student's mind with the 
importance of giving nouns their appropriate numbers. But, 
strange to say, our own grammars furnish neither a rule nor exer- 
cises for this purpose. To supply this deficiency, we furnish the 
following : 

Rule. 1. Nouns denoting but one, should have the singular 
form ; more than one, the plural form. 



Vlll PREFACE. 

" The teacher derives much pleasure from instructing us." All 
our teachers and authors agree in denominating instructing, as 
used in this example, a participial noun, which word, you per- 
ceive, governs the object us ; but, curious enough, there is rarely, 
if ever, any rule furnished for the government of us. As verbs, 
participles, prepositions, etc., govern objects, and it is important to 
state this fact in the form of a rule, why should not a rule be given 
for the government of objects by participial nouns ? 

Many other rules are wanting, and this deficiency must be per- 
plexing to teachers, as well as to pupils. We furnish the follow- 
ing : — R. 30. Participial nouns may govern objects. Surely, this 
is plain and brief enough. It has been our constant aim to make 
our rules few, concise, and comprehensive, without any irrelative 
matter, and in every instance to illustrate them by examples care- 
fully analyzed. 

We have not only supplied deficiencies by adding several new 
rules ; but we have rendered many more intelligible ; others have 
been so modified as to correct numerous radical errors, and to set 
forth the truth in simplicity and brevity. " Truth and simplicity 
are twin sisters." 

2nd. Want of simplicity of terms. For instance, the first part of 
grammar, which professes to teach only and simply spelling, nas the 
more difficult name, Orthography. The portion promising to teach 
pronunciation is called Orthoepy. The next division, which teaches 
the parts of speech, their subdivisions, and modifications, appropri- 
ately called parsing, assumes the more learned appellation, Ety- 
mology. These terms are wanting in simplicity ; they are abso- 
lutely unintelligible to the class of readers for whom they are 
designed. 

" The difficulties that belong to the subject, have been increased 
by the use of terms merely technical in designating the parts of 
speech." — Webster's Gram., p. 3. "Attribute is a word better un- 
derstood than adjective ; though it were to be wished we could find 
a jnore familiar term for that class of words." — Ibid. It may be 
seen that we have employed the term descriptive for this class of 
words. Who would desire a more familiar or appropriate name ? 
The best words are those that are most intelligible to our hearers, 
and which express our ideas most clearly and forcibly. " Speak to 
a child according to its capacity." 

3rd. Want of propriety in terms. " In six days God created 
the heavens and the earth." Created is called the imperfect tense, 
which term denotes something unfinished, but here improperly 
applied. We sometimes hear it urged that the term imperfect 
must be used to preserve the correspondence with the Latin. It 
is true, the term imperfect occurs in the Latin ; but it is, by no 



PREFACE. IX 

means, applied as in our English Grammars. Creavit, the Latin 
term corresponding to created, is called perfect, and appropriately 
so. This plea for correspondence appears to prove too much. 

" The terms used to express the tenses of English verbs, are 
borrowed from the Latin ; but some of them are improperly ap- 
plied. Thus, he created is called the imperfect tense, denoting un- 
finished action ; but this is not correct." — Webster's Gram., p. 3. 
If one act is said to have taken place before another specified act 
or time, the first act is called pluperfect tense, meaning more than 
the perfect. But how can anything be more than the perfect ? 
" The words 'pluperfect and preter-pluperfect, which signify more 
than finished, beyond more than finished, are very awkward terms. — 
Webster's Gram., p. 4. 

This, that, these, those, etc., are denominated adjective-pronouns. 
Most teachers and authors are usually quite careful to have the 
simple terms, adjective and pronoun, well understood by the pupil ; 
but, if it is essential to have the simple terms understood, must it 
not be more important that the compound should be intelligible ? 
But, as adjective means added to, and pronoun means standing in 
the place of, another word, such a thing as an adjective-pronoun 
is obviously impossible, as the same word cannot stand before, and 
in the place of, another at the same time. Such teaching is with- 
out a parallel in nonsense. 

In this treatise, foreign, unmeaning, fictitious, and arbitrary 
technicalities have been supplanted by plain, familiar, intelligible, 
and self-defining terms. Language being the chief medium of 
thought, it is evidently as important to learn the correct applica- 
tion, as to know the true meaning-, of words. (See Note 5 — Arti- 
cle. Note 8 — Interjection.) 

Ath. Want of precision. " Any word or short phrase that will 
answer to any of the questions, how ? how much ? wlien ? or where ? 
is an adverb." — Kirkham, p. 85. How did he write it ? " With 
his pen." How much did he contribute ? '' Ten dollars." When 
will he return ? " In a few days." Where has she been ? " To 
church." Now, with his pen, ten dollars, in a few clays, and to 
church, respectively, answer to the questions, how? how much? 
when? and where? and are all these answers to be regarded as 
adverbs ? Certainly not. 

The same author, page 44, informs us, that " Any word that will 
make sense with to before it is a verb. Let us see : w Jane went 
to school ;" " Mary came to town ;" " John has returned to his 
farm ;" " The child has gone to a happy home." Here, school, town, 
his, and a make sense with to before them ; and are they necessarily 
verbs, because they have to before them ? Bather a strange way 
to teach a knowledge of verbs. This vagueness, not peculiar to 
Kirkham, is common to most of our grammars. Such definitions or 



X PREFACE. 

instructions are violations of the first, plain, and fundamental prin- 
ciples of rhetoric. 

5th. Unnecessary Rules. — '* Note iii. The pronoun them should 
not be used in the place of tliese or those. 71 — R. C. Smith, p. 57. 
Them is never used in the place of these, hence this part of the 
rule, or note, is uncalled for ; therefore it is an unnecessary incum- 
brance, furthermore no reason is given. He that is ignorant of the 
reason is ignorant of the rule. 

" The definite article the belongs to nouns of the singular or 
plural number." — R. C. Smith, p. 50. If the may be used with 
both numbers, why make a rule ? A rule is but another name for 
law, which is intended to prohibit what is wrong, and enforce what 
is right. But as the may be used with either, or both numbers, 
where is there any necessity for a rule, or law, to protect what can- 
not be violated or abused ; or to enforce what cannot be avoided ? 

" Rule vi. The nominative case governs the verb in number and 
parson. Rule vii. A verb must agree with its nominative case 
in number and person." — R. 0. Smith, p. 21. One of these rules 
is sufficient, particularly the last, the other being entirely a work 
of supererogation. 

" Lindley Murray, Blair, Cobbett, possessing each many excel- 
lences, have, more or less, failed to expound, as they really exist, 
the facts of the English language, and given rules as well as sanc- 
tioned forms of speech, which have no other source than the undue 
predominance of the logical faculty in their own minds." — Popu- 
lar Educator, p. 45. At the same time, that we have studiously 
avoided all unnecessary rules, we have added several new rules, and 
given much original information ; thus, not only correcting error, 
but remedying many, very many, of the defects so loudly and justly 
complained of ; and, at the same time, furnishing instruction by 
which the anomalies, idioms, and perplexing intricacies may be 
analyzed, and a much more thorough, comprehensive, practical, and 
philosophical knowledge secured than formerly. 

6th. Unnecessary subdivisions. — Our grammars usually assign 
four genders. Nature has given but two, masculine and feminine. 
(See Note 11 — Common Gender. Note 12 — Neuter Gender.) 

Nouns are said to have three cases ; but as case means a change 
of termination, consequently nouns can have no more cases than 
they have changes of termination, therefore the so-called posses- 
sive is the only word that furnishes any foundation for case ; and, I 
trust, we have successfully shown that this class of words are not 
nouns, but deflnitives. (See Note 28 — Case. Note 16 — Possessive 
Case.) 

"There are, properly speaking, no oblique cases in English 
nouns, excepting the possessive case, and yet, in some grammars, we 
have six ca^es specified, similar to those of Latin nouns; and in 



PREFACE. XI 

almost every book on grammar, three cases, at least, are considered 
as belonging to English nouns. On the same principle, we might 
affirm that there are as many cases as there are prepositions in the 
language ; for every combination of a preposition with a noun 
forms a distinct relation, and consequently maybe said to constitute 
a distinct case. Were it expedient in this place, many such re- 
marks might be offered in reference to the absurdities and intrica- 
cies of our grammatical systems, and the perplexing and inefficient 
modes by which a knowledge of this subject is attempted to be 
communicated." — Thomas Dick, LL. D. 

Yerbs are usually divided into active-transitive and active-intran- 
sitive, and we are accordingly furnished with the following : " Rule 
viii. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case." — R. 0. 
Smith, p. 21. Do these active-transitive verbs always govern 
objective cases ? " Not always." Do not the so-called active- 
intransitive sometimes govern objective cases (objects) ? " She 
would smile him into good humor." — Addison. Smile is called an 
% active-intransitive verb, yet smile appears to have him for its ob- 
ject (objective case). Then, if the transitive do not always have 
objects after them, and the intransitive often do have objects, why 
observe the distinction made by the rule above ? The difference is 
not sufficient to authorize the distinction. If verbs have objects, 
parse them as such ; if they have not objects, you have none 
to parse. (See Note 38— Transitive and Intransitive verbs.) 

u Rule xiv. Active participles, from active-transitive verbs, 
govern the objective case." — R. C. Smith, p. 86. " John is run- 
ning his horse too rapidly." Running is an active participle, 
from the active-intransitive verb run, and governs horse in the ob- 
jective case (object). Then, if the participles of both the so-called 
transitive and intransitive may govern the objective case, why make 
this needless, and erroneous distinction ? If participles govern 
objects, it is sufficient to say that they do ; as, Rule 28 — Partici- 
ples may govern objects. And parse them accordingly. 

Yerbs are not a little encumbered by a subdivision in reference 
to moods. " There are scarcely two authors who are agreed in the 
number and denominations of the moods in English." — Webster's 
Grammar, p. 54. " Dr. Crombie, the best of modern gramma- 
rians, says : * If we regard those only as moods which are diversi- 
fied by inflections, and, as Dr. Lowth observes, there can be no 
others, we find that our language has only one mood and two 
tenses.' " — Fowle, p. 43. 

If our language, as is obviously the fact, has not a diversity of 
inflections, corresponding to the moods, to insist upon this subdi- 
vision, is not only unnecessary, but mischievous. 

Some think, however, that our grammars must have moods to 
correspond with the Latin and Greek grammars. But our gram- 



Xll PREFACE. 

mars do not correspond with the Latin and Greek grammars. For 
instance, what is subjunctive in Latin and Greek is potential in 
English. The Latin and Greek grammars do not correspond in 
name nor form. Those grammars, however, uniformly correspond 
with the forms found in their respective languages, which uniformi- 
ty, we are sorry to find, has not been observed by our English 
grammarians. (See Note 43 — Moods.) 

Tense. " Nothing can be more simple than the English verb, 
which, unlike the Greek and Latin verb, has only two or three 
varieties in its termination ; yet, we perplex the learner with no 
less than six different tenses — the present, the imperfect, the per- 
fect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the future perfect, 
— while nature and common sense point only three distinctions of 
time in which an action may be performed ; namely, the past, the 
present, and the future" — " Method of Teaching Grammar," by 
Thomas Dick, LL. D. 

" English grammar was first expounded by classical scholars. 
Familiar with the forms and usages of the Greek and Latin tongues, 
and holding them to be perfect in character, if not of universal ob- 
ligation, they introduced those forms and usages into their manuals 
of English grammar, and so made complex and difficult one of the 
simplest and easiest grammars in the world. Hence came into our 
grammatical books, cases, tenses, and constructions, which have 
no corresponding realities in our literature. With such things the 
student of English grammar has nothing to do, and the sooner our 
manuals are disembarrassed of them, the better." — " Popular Edu- 
cator," p. 45. (See Note 28— Case. Note 17— Tense.) 

1th. Errors in Grammar-books. — " When the singular ends in 
ss, the apostrophe only is added ; as, ' For goodness' sake :' except 
the noun witness ; as, ' The witness's deposition.' " — K. C. Smith's 
Gram., p. 47 (341). 

Mr. Smith, witness is not the only exception to this rule ; abbess's, 
countess's, duchess's, heiress's, miss's, pass's, peeress's, Mr. Bliss's, 
Mr. La Cross's, and all other singular nouns ending in ss, form 
the so-called possessive case regularly, that is, by adding the 
apostrophe (') and s, except only the two isolated words, witness 
and goodness, which omit the additional s, to avoid a disagreeable 
hissing. 

See the following examples : Have you seen Mr. Bliss's outline 
maps ? Have you heard of Mr. La Cross's return ? She made an 
attempt to look into the dear duchess's. — Jane West's Letters to a 
Lady, p. 95. Miss's fine Leonardi, and miss's bonnet. — Burns, p. 
44. Led slowly through the pass's jaws. — Walter Scott. 

" Nouns ending in nee form the possessive case by adding 
the apostrophe only ; as, ■ For conscience' sake.' Ibid. (342). Mr. 
Smith, as well as many other grammarians, here too hastily draws 



PREFACE. Xlll 

broad conclusions from narrow bases ; for conscience and patience 
are but isolated exceptions to the general rule, while dunce, prince, 
Providence, benevolence, lance, and, indeed, all other nouns ending 
in nee, form the so-called possessive case regularly. 

Our grammarians often strangely confound exceptions with ex- 
amples. See the following : You may have the dunce's choice, 
I will have the prince's ; This sprung some doubt of Providence's 
sway. — Parnell. Sweet benevolence's mild command. — Lord 
Ltttelton. I heard the lance's shivering crash. — Sir Walter 
Scott. 

" Eule III. — The conjunctive disjunctive has an effect contrary 
to that of the conjunction copulative ; for as the verb, noun, or 
pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken separately, it 
must be in the singular number." — L. Murray's Gram., p. 102. In 
the first place, this rule is a most perfect jumble of unintelligible 
words. Secondly, though the accompanying examples are correct, 
yet this rule inculcates error in two instances out of every three 
examples in which nouns are connected by the so-called disjunctive 
conjunctions. If two or more singular nouns are connected by the 
disjunctive conjunctions, it is true, the corresponding verbs, nouns, 
and pronouns should be singular ; but, if the nouns thus connected 
should be plural, or even one of them, custom requires the plural 
to be placed last, and then, of course, the corresponding terms 
must be plural ; so then this rule teaches two errors to one truth — 
so much worse than no teaching. 

" From a careful survey of the history of our language, I have 
ascertained beyond any reasonable doubt, that the English gram- 
mars which have been published within the last forty years, have 
introduced more errors than they have corrected." — Webster's 
Gram., p. 143. 

u Eule XI. Conjunctions connect verbs of the same mood and 
tense, and nouns and pronouns of the same relation." — R. C. Smith's 
Gram., p. 95. Yerbs connected by conjunctives (conjunctions) are 
not necessarily of the same mood and tense, as stated by Mr. 
Smith, as may be seen by one of his own examples, given to illus- 
trate the rule : " If he has promised, he should act accordingly." 
You may observe, Smith and his followers parse has promised, a 
verb in indicative mood, perfect tense ; but should act, in the po- 
tential mood, imperfect tense, yet both are connected by the con- 
junction if. 

8th. Contradictions in Grammar. — " You will much oblige me 
by sending those books." "Sending is a participial noun, in the 
objective case," etc. In the next sentence, immediately following, 
and speaking of the same word sending, in the same sentence, he 
says, " books is governed by the active participle sending. 1 ' Now, 
can this same word sending be two different parts of speech at the 



XIV PREFACE. 

same time and in the same place ? If it cannot, Smith contradicts 
himself ; for he first calls sending a participial noun, then simply 
an active participle. See Smith's Gram., p. 87. 

" Rule XX. Two objective cases, the one of a person, and the other 
of a thing, may follow transitive verbs, of asking, teaching, giving, 
etc. ; a preposition being understood : He taught me grammar." — 
R. C. Smith's Gram., p. 106. How is me governed in this exam- 
ple ? According to the first part of this rule, it would seem to be 
governed by taught ; according to the last part of the rule, u a 
preposition being understood," it would appear to be governed ac- 
cordingly ; but it cannot be governed both by a verb and a prepo- 
sition at the same time ; this is certainly not allowable. Now, lest 
we misunderstand the author, read the remark immediately preced- 
ing the rule : " When I say, i He taught me grammar,' I mean, 
' He taught grammar to me :' grammar, then, is the object of 
the verb, and me is governed by the preposition to, understood." 
Immediately following the rule : " Remark 1. — In the foregoing 
example, me and grammar are both governed by taught," etc. 
Here, you readily see that you can prove by Smith that me is gov- 
erned by taught, or not governed by taught ; that me is governed 
by the preposition to, understood, or not so governed. You can, 
by the same author, prove that taught governs the two objects, me 
and grammar, or that taught does not govern both. Now, how is 
me governed ? Is not this question well calculated to perplex and 
embarrass the pupil? Are there not contradictions in these in- 
structions? This rule is not wanting in flexibility, however 
destitute it may be of consistency. 

For more specimens of inconsistencies, compare Murray's Note 
7 of Rule 10, p. 121, with Note 2, under Rule 14, p. 128. Smith's 
Gram., pp. 152, 162. 

9th. Absurdities in Grammar. — " Note 18. — Nouns signify- 
ing duration, extension, quantity, quality, or valuation, are in the 
objective case, without any governing word." — R. C. Smith's Gram., 
p. 107. 

A noun in the objective case, without any governing word ! Mr. 
Smith, define the objective case ? " The objective case denotes the 
object of an action or relation." p. 47. Hence, to say that a noun 
is in the objective case "without a governing word, is tantamount 
to saying that a certain person or thing is in the state or condition 
of being acted upon, yet there never was, is, or will be any action 
— an effect without a cause, philosophy with a vengeance ! (See 
Note 29, Objective case.) 

We learn from some of our grammars, that strive, improve, 
laugh, smile, talk, walk, run, jump, fly, etc. are neuter verbs : 
"A verb neuter expresses neither action nor passion, but being or 
a state of being." — Murray's Gram., p. 50. 



PREFACE. XV 

What can be more absurd than to teach that the definition just 
quoted is applicable to such words, as strive, improve, run, 
fly, etc. ? 

(See Note 37 — Neuter verbs.) 

For more absurdities see Note 34 — Adjective Pronouns. Note 
10 — Disjunctive Conjunctions. 

In this treatise, many unnecessary, some contradictory, and not 
a few absurd subdivisions, are either dispensed with or corrected, 
recognizing no distinctions without differences. The parts of 
speech are named and defined in reference to their uses in sentences. 
It has been my constant aim to correct whatever was erroneous ; 
to retrench superfluous and unimportant matter ; to compress the 
prolix ; to elucidate what was obscure ; to determine the doubtful ; 
and to supply defects : In these, as well as in many other respects, 
I have been compelled to differ from the prevailing systems ; this, 
however, has been done only where truth and practical utility re- 
quired it, never for the sake of finding fault ; but, if the truth is 
disagreeable, I choose to be offensive. 

10^. Want of Progressive Arrangement. — For instance, it is 
utterly impossible for the learner to comprehend the nature of case 
(relation) in the order in which it is laid down in our systems of 
grammar. Case, or relation, cannot be thoroughly understood, 
until verbs, participles, relatives, etc., which govern case, have been 
explained ; then the chapter on cases should be reserved, until the 
pupil has been properly prepared to master it. 

In this treatise, Grammar is not left abstruse and mysterious, 
nor so simplified as to dispense with necessary and reasonable labor 
by the pupil ; but the principles are so lucidly expressed, and the 
various exercises so progressively arranged, that everything can be 
mastered as the pupil advances ; requiring nothing to be anti- 
cipated ; thus this system is so arranged as to be readily adapted 
to the most ordinary capacity, and to crown proper effort with 
success. In this manner, a burdensome, dull task may be con- 
verted into an agreeable pastime. 

By a skillful use of this system, pupils ten years old, of ordinary 
capacity, and fair intelligence, though they may never have studied 
the subject before, can be taught to parse any author which they 
may be able to read understanding^, and to correct ungrammatical 
language wherever found, in ten days' close application. Advanced 
pupils and grown ladies and gentlemen should become quite pro- 
ficient in a dozen lectures. At least, this task has been accomplish- 
ed, time and again, for eight years, by many others as well as the 
author. It has been often said, that experience is the best teacher, 
and I have only to add, that demonstration is the best proof. Is 
it a matter of no importance that millions of our youth should 



XVI PREFACE. 

spend one, two, or three years on the science of English grammar, 
when they might learn all that is desirable in a few days ? 

Thus, this most valuable accomplishment is placed within the 
reach of hundreds and thousands to whom it would otherwise be 
inaccessible. 

In getting up this system, I am under special obligations to 
Webster's, Barnard's, G. Brown's, and Wm. B. Fowle's Gram- 
mars. 

Prof. Barnard's Grammar is profound and philosophical — sur- 
passed by none in this respect. Goold Brown's Grammar is high 
authority on practical questions, and his Grammar of Grammars 
should be in every teacher's hands. Fowle's Grammar is invalu- 
able, I regard it more in accordance with the genius of the English 
language than any work that I have yet examined. James Brown's 
Appeal has also furnished many happy suggestions in reference to 
the criticisms — in this respect, it has no equal. I have likewise 
received considerable and important assistance from my affection- 
ate and devoted companion, Mrs. Martha A. Morris. 



INDEX. 



A and An, how used 44 

Uses of, criticised 45 

Adjective , viii, 6 

Do not describe nouns and pronouns 67 

Adverb ix, 16, 64, 67, 119, 135 

Comparison of 64 

Division of 65 

Parsed 67 

Principal and Helping 65 

Qualify Verbs 67 

Participles 119 

Participial Nouns 135 

Verbal Nouns 135 

Adverbial Phrases 136 

Article x, 7, 90 

Case xi, 81 

Nominative and Objective xiv, 82 

Possessive xii, 46 48, 49, 126 

Comparative Degree 79 

Conjunction xiii, 20 

Copulative and Disjunctive xiii, 21 

Conjunctive 20, 72 

Principal and Helping 120 

Connect, (Rule) 120 

Parsed 121, 131 

Remarks 

Defectives 77 

Definitives! ".""/."."." '."!."/.". '.'.".!.'." .'.! . 7, 44, 48* Vl," 93, 125,126, 148 

Observations 93 

Remarks 49, 91 



XV111 - INDEX. 

PAGE 

Definitives, Parsed 44, 49, 127 

Comparison of 93 

Degrees of Comparison 38, 79 

Criticised . . 39 

How formed 40 

Descriptives 5, 38, 66, 76 

Parsed 66 

Principal and Helping vii, 42 

Irregularly compared 76 

Observations on ,. 78 

Double Comparatives and Superlatives 80 

Divisions of Grammar 2 

Etymology ., viii, 3 

Exclamation 18, 71 

Parsed 72 

Gender — Masculine and Feminine 27 

Common 23 

Neuter 25 

Observations and Remarks 29 

Table 28, 138 

General view of the parts of speech 4 

Idioms, Anomalies, and Intricacies vi 

Introduction 1 

Interjections 18 

Mood « xi., 162 

Imperative 164 

Indicative 169 

Infinitive 166 

Potential 170 

Subjunctive 172 

Negatives 68 

Noun 4 

Abstract 123 

Collective 122, 124, 125 

Denoting ownership 48 

Generic , , 122 

Ending in/ and fe 74 

Kinds of 122 

May govern objects 1 31 

Participial viii, xiii, 123, 132, 135 

Parsed 101, 111, 115, 118, 131, 132, 150 

Proper and Common 123 

Specific 122 

Two or more connected by and 116 

Used independently 147 

Verbal 123, 131, 135 

Number xii, 31, 74, 118, 139 

Observations and Remarks 32, 74, 139 

Rule and Exercise 33 

Objects 84,111, 130, 131,132 



INDEX. XIX 

PAGE 

Orthoepy viii, 3 

Orthography viii, 2 

Participle xi, 15, 128, 155 

Connected with Verbs 155 

May govern Objects 130 

Observations on 155 

Parsed 129 

Perfect 132 

Use of 133 

Parsing difficult Sentences 189 

Critical 192 

Lessons 121 

Passive Voice 176 

Person 34 

Criticised 35 

Positive Degree 39 

Preposition, criticised 17 

Pronoun 5 

Adjective, criticised ix, 89, 90 

Agreement of 112, 115, 119, 124, 149 

Compound 179 

Parsed 180 

Declension, or Variation 84 

Division of , 84 

Gender of 35 

Interrogative 88 

Number 36 

Observations on 116, 124, 143 

Parsed 113, 116, 119 

Personal 86 

Person of 37 

Relation of 85 

Relative 87 

Remarks on — 

Used independently. 147 

Relation 84,147 

Relatives 16, 69 

Govern Objects Ill 

Observations on 185 

Parsed Ill 

Remarks Ill, 184 

Use 137 

Same word 23, 137, 187 

Subjects 84, 101, 102 

Superlative Degree 79 

Tense xii, 50 

Future 50 

Names of, criticised 51 

Remarks, by Noah Webster 53 

Present 50, 54 



XX INDEX. 

PAGE 

Tense, Imperfect viii, 57 

Perfect 59 

Pluperfect 60 

First and Second Future 62 

Observations on 154 

Past 50, 134, 159 

The x 

This, that ix, 125, 148 

That and which 38, 125 

These, those x, 126, 148 

Verb 10 

Agreement of 97, 100, 114, 117, 124, 149, 151 

Conjugation of 94, 156, 158 

Definitions of, criticised ix, 11 

Governing objects 110 

Having different subjects 114 

Helping 152 

Impersonal 158 

Irregular 98. 160 

Neuter xiv, 102 

Parsed 101, 115, 118, 150 

And Participles connected 155 

Transitive and Intransitive vii, xi, 109 

What 181 

Who 37, 125 

Which 38, 125 

You, singular 85 

You was 96 



GRAMMAR 



OP THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



INTRODUCTION 



Q. What is Grammar 1 

1. A. Grammar is the science and art of language. 

Q. What is language ? 

2. ^4. Language is human speech — both spoken 
and written. 

Q. In what respect is Grammar a science ? 

3. A. Grammar, as a science, teaches parsing. 

Q. What does parsing teach ? 

4. A. Parsing teaches how to divide words into 
classes, called parts of speech ; it teaches, also, their 
various properties and forms. 

Q. In what respect is Grammar an art ? 

5. A. Grammar is an art as it applies the prin- 
ciples taught by Parsing, so as to demonstrate the 
correctness, or detect the incorrectness, of a sen- 
tence. 

6. " A principle in science is a rule in art." — Playfair. 
Q. On what principle should words be parsed ? 

7. A. Every word should be parsed according to its 

USE. 

Q. What has use to do with language ? 

8. A. Use is the law of language. 

Q. WTiat hind of use ? 

9. A. National, reputable, present use is the law of 
language. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR. 

[The Notes being designed for teachers and critics, it is not necessary 
that they should be read by the pupil.] 

Authors usually divide Grammar into four, some into five, parts ; 
viz., Orthography, Orthoepy, Etymology, Syntax, and Pro- 
sody ; but, as I have neglected to observe these divisions, deeming 
them unnecessary and improper, it may not be amiss, at least, to 
note a few of my objections, by way of self-defense. 

Note 1 — Orthography. 

The term Orthography, usually employed to denote the first part 
of Grammar, is derived from the" Greek words orthos, right, and 
graphe, writing, literally meaning correct writing ; but it is 
restricted in our grammars to correct spelling, which, I apprehend, 
constitutes only a small and inferior part of correct writing. The 
elucidation of this term, to children, by reference to its Grecian 
origin, " is all Greek" truly. Unintelligible words may be as 
virtually a dead language as their foreign roots. The term ortho- 
graphy is wanting in simplicity. " Orthography means word- 
making or spelling." — R. C. Smith. Then, why not say spelling, 
a word much more readily understood by beginners. " Speak to a 
child according to its capacity," But what Grammar teaches 
spelling ? Does R. C. Smith's ? Who ever learned spelling from a 
grammar ? Why, then, say anything about either orthography or 
spelling? The spelling-book teaches spelling, and it must be 
thoroughly learned, too, before the pupil is properly prepared to 
enter upon the study of any grammar. It is to be regretted, how- 
ever, that too many teachers, having more regard to the recompense 
of reward — the dimes — than to candor and honesty, advance 
pupils not only to the study of grammar, but to the classics, long 
Wore they are prepared for a successful prosecution of them. It 
is remarkably curious, that some teachers can impart a knowledge 
of the philosophy of language so much more happily through the 
medium of the Latin and Greek, than by the use of one's own native 
tongue. If the maxim is true, that " we can teach what is unknown 
only by a comparison with what is known," why not learn the 
philosophy of language, it being the same in all, by studying 
English Grammar, as we would then be so much better prepared 
to acquire and appreciate other languages ; but, doubtless, a 
knowledge of dollars and cents often influences this preference for 
the prior study of the languages. This doctrine is foolishly false, 
and it is high time that the impositions in teaching, as well as the 
errors in grammar, should be exposed. We frequently meet with 



THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR. 3 

pupils, who have been reading (?) Latin and Greek for two or 
three years, who cannot read plain, easy English prose fluently or 
intelligibly. But we are told they will learn English Grammar — 
to speak and write correctly — by first studying the languages 
(learn to parse English by Latin and Greek!), the principle being 
the same in all. Who would think of obtaining an accurate 
knowledge of French through a Hebrew grammar, notwithstanding, 
the philosophy is the same in both. But, if the philosophy is the 
same in all languages, why not expect to obtain an accurate 
acquaintance with the principles of Latin and Greek grammars by 
first studying English? One of the greatest advantages in the 
study of the classics is, to acquire a correct and elegant style, 
correctness being the first element of elegance ; but how can a 
pupil translate into correct, grammatical English, he not under- 
standing the grammar of the English language? Who could 
render English into good French, not being familiar with the 
French grammar ? 

Note 2 — Orthoepy. 

Orthoepy is derived from the two Greek words, orths, right, and 
epos, word, or epo, to speak, and is used to signify pronunciation. 
If so, why not say pronunciation at once ? — pronunciation being 
a familiar term, and much more simple and intelligible to juvenile 
minds. Thus both the time and labor of an illustration would be 
saved. Pronunciation can be better learned from professed works 
on this subject, or from dictionaries, than from any or all the 
English Grammars that have ever been written. Who would 
think of turning to a grammar to learn the pronunciation of a 
word ? Why, then, should grammars promise to impart this inform- 
ation, if their pretensions are untrue ? 

Note 3 — Etymology. 

Etymology is derived from two Greek words, etymon, the root, 
and logos, a discourse ; hence, " Etymology signifies the origin and 
pedigree of words." Does English Grammar teach us the origin and 
pedigree of words ? We are further instructed by B. C. Smith, 
that Etymology, the second part of his grammar, " includes a 
knowledge of the meaning and use of words — also their different 
changes and derivations." Who has ever learned the meaning 
and derivation of words from Smith's or any other English 
Grammar? Is it the province of the English Grammar, or 
the dictionary, to teach the meaning of words ? Is the deriva- 
tion of English words learned from English Grammar, or from 
Latin, Greek, etc. ? In fine, as our English Grammars do not 
teach spelling, pronunciation, the meaning, and derivation of words, 
it must be most erroneous to say that they do, unless we can 



4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

subscribe to Mr. Kirkham'js apology, that " What is false in fact 
may, nevertheless, be true in grammar." 

Parsing is preferred to the term Etymology, as not only 
being more simple, but much more appropriate. Many of the 
objections urged to Orthography, Orthoepy, and Etymology, are 
applicable to the terms Syntax and Prosody. 

" Mankind in general are not sufficiently aware that words 
without meaning, or of equivocal meaning, are the everlasting 
engines of frauds and injustice ; and that the grimgribber of West- 
minster Hall is a fertile, and a much more formidable source of 
imposture than the abracadabra of magicians. No wonder that the 
word gramarye, which is a corruption of the French word grimaire, 
should signify a conjuring book in the old French romances, if not 
the art of necromancy itself. Grammar was once looked upon as 
a kind of magic. The French grimande is a grammar-school boy. 
May not also the Scotch glamer, glamour, a charm, have the same 
origin." 



PART I. 

A GENERAL VIEW OF THE TEN PARTS OF SPEECH. 
Q. How many parts of speech ? 

10. A. Words in the English Language may be 
divided into ten parts of speech; viz., Noun, Pronoun, 
Descriptive, Definitive, Verb, Participle, Adverb 
Relative, Conjunctive, and Exclamation. 

NOUNS. 
Q. What is a Noun ? 

11. A. A Noun is the name of any person, or oth- 
er animal, place, thing, action, or idea ; as, John, 
horse, Boston, book, race, virtue, etc. 

12. Rem. A Noun may be known by its being used to Dame 
anything which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of — 
the names of all things, both material and immaterial, are nouns. 

Mention the nouns in 

Exercise 1. 

1. John and Thomas are in the yard. 2. The horse and cow 
are in the lot. 3. The hawk and the eagle have flown to the 



PRONOUNS — DESCRIPTIVES. O 

mountain. 4. The travelers left Montgomery for Mobile. 5. 
Columbus discovered America. 6. The boys threw snow-balls at 
the girls in the window. 7. The sun gives light by day ; the moon, 
by night. 8. Trees, corn, cotton, wheat, and rice grow in the fields. 
9. My father and mother reside in Texas. 10. Vice degrades its 
votaries ; but virtue is its own reward. 11. Emma is constantly 
engaged in reading, writing, and ciphering. 12. Playing delights 
the boys. 

PRONOUNS. 

Q. What is a Pronoun ? 

13. A. A Pronoun stands for a noun ; as, " Peter 
goes to school, he learns fast, and the teacher likes 
him; 91 "Mary pays close attention, disobedient, 
and the instructress often rewards her;" " The boys 
took the melon, because it pleased them" 

Write the pronouns in one column, and the nouns for 
which they stand in another column, in 

Exercise 2. 

1. George told Sarah that he would let her have the book, if 
she wished to study it. 2. The venerable old man treated us so 
kindly that we were forced to love him. 3. I wish you to instruct 
me. 4. We requested the instructor to help us. 5. The man 
who instructs you labors faithfully. 6. The girl whom I teach 
learns well. 7. If thou wilt help me, I will repay thee. 8. Mod- 
esty is a quality that highly adorns a woman. 9. George Eussell 
took the book, because it pleased him. 10. The bird which sung 
so sweetly has flown. 11. Cullis saw the deer, and shot it. 12. 
Stephen and Joseph have performed the task which I gave them. 

13. They respect her, because she has shown them great kindness. 

14. The girl that acts wisely deserves praise. 15. Washington 
was a great general ; he established our independence, 16. I saw 
the sun to-day, when it was rising. 17. The man whom I saw was 
dressed in black. 

DESCRIPTIVES. [Adjectives.] 
Q. What are Descriptives ? 

14. A. Descriptives qualify nouns and pronouns ; 
as, " Susan is intelligent, but she is not beautiful" 

Mention or write the descriptives, also the nouns and 
yronouns which they qualify, in 



b ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise 3. 
1. Bed apples. 2. Green grass. 3. Large trees. 4. High 
mountains. 5. Tall mountains. 6. Low valleys. 7. Wise men. 
8. Foolish children. 9. Fresh fish. 10. White houses. 11. 
Modest girls. 12. Ripe fruit. 13. A glad father. 14. Good 
girls love instructive books. 15. Wealthy merchants own large 
ships. 16. Just men pay their honest debts. 17. Studious scho- 
lars learn long lessons, and the teacher is pleased with them. 18. 
Good boys, who pay close attention, will make rapid progress. 19. 
Annie is a promising girl, she is industrious, intelligent, and duti- 
ful. 20. Weak critics magnify trifling errors. 21. Frosty weather 
makes red noses. 22. Darkness is gloomy. 23. Ivory is a hard, 
solid, and firm substance of a white color. 

Note 4 — Adjective. 

Adjective, from the Latin adjectus, signifies added to, though a 
literal, yet quite a vague term ; for what word may not be added ? 
To what is it added, and for what purpose ? Adjective, radically 
defined, can teach only the position of a word, of which no child, 
having eyes or ears, can long be ignorant. Is the term adjective 
to be restricted to words placed immediately before or after nouns ? 
If so, many words usually denominated adjectives, being remotely 
situated as to the noun, must be excluded ; while many others, evi- 
dently belonging to different classes, will be included. If the term 
adjective is not restricted to such as are placed immediately before 
or after nouns, with what propriety can any word be called an ad- 
jective ? or what word may not be an adjective ? Every word in 
the sentence is added ; hence every word may, with equal consist- 
ency, be called an adjective ; but that which is common to all can- 
not be distinctive of any. 

" An adjective is a word added to a noun to express its quality 
or kind, or to restrict its meaning." — Kirkham, p. 69. 

" Added to nouns." Are not these words added to pronouns as 
well as to nouns ? Participles express quality, and are they to be 
included with adjectives ? The so-called prepositions, with their 
objects, likewise often express quality or kind ; as, " A man of vir- 
tue," i. e., a virtuous man. " To restrict its meaning." " Articles 
are words put before nouns to point them out, or limit their mean- 
ing." — R. C. Smith's Gram., p. 40. It appears from Smith's 
definition, that the articles also restrict the meaning of nouns ; if 
so, why not class them with adjectives ? The so-called possessive 
case of nouns and pronouns may restrict the name of the thing 
said to be possessed ; the adjective pronouns likewise restrict nouns, 
yet all of these are clearly included in the definition of adjective. 

It is obvious that both the term and the definition of adjective are 
so vague as to comprise many words of other and naturally distinct 



DEFINITIVES. 7 

parts of speech. It is not only important that terms and definitions 
should be applicable to, and inclusive of, the whole class, but dis- 
tinctly exclusive of any and all not strictly belonging to the class. 
Adjectives, at best, can only teach the place of words. Is it the 
province of Grammar to teach the position of words, or their uses ? 
If their uses, would it not be preferable to employ the significant 
term descriptive as we have, it being more suggestive of the char- 
acter and use of the class of words under consideration ? 

N. Webster, in the preface to his grammar, remarks, " Attribute 
is a word better understood than adjective, though it were to be 
wished we could find a more familiar term for that class of words." 

Who could desire a word better understood, or more familiar, 
than the term descriptive, which we have employed ? 

DEFINITIVES. [Articles, Adjective Pronouns, and the Posses- 
sive Cases of Nouns and Pronouns.] 

Q. What are Definitives ? 

15. A. Definitives point out or limit nouns ; as, 
"that boy ; this book ; these pens ; those papers ; ten 
men ; the church ; my friend is kind ; your enemy is 
cruel ; Smith's Grammar was sold ; Washington' s 
monument ; he is the son of a king." 

Mention or write the definitives, and the nouns which 
they point out or limit ; also, the pronouns and descrip- 
tives, in 

Exercise 4. 

1. This book is better than that book. 2. These desks belong 
to the Female Institute ; but those chairs belong to this Academy. 
3. Henrietta has an ink-stand belonging to this office. 4. My 
friend has four comfortable rooms in his house, yet your house is 
more convenient. 5. Few men do their duty. 6. Her son should 
attend to his own studies. 7. Two girls surpassed all the boys. 
8. Sin deceives its votaries. 9. Which boy did it ? 10. What 
news did he bring ? 11. Several ladies were present. 12. Mr. 
Clay was a great statesman. 13. Mr. Brown has boys' caps and 
children's shoes for sale. 14. Both boys did the same thing. 15. 
Such folly has ruined many men. 16. Some girls do much mis- 
chief. 17. Any pupil should help another pupil in distress. 18. 
Each scholar attends every lecture. 

Note 5 — Article. 
The words a, an, and the are commonly called Articles. Why ? 
Not, of course, according to the popular acceptation of the term, 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

article. A customer calling for an article hardly expects to have 
a, an, or the handed down to him. Speaking of an article in a 
book or paper, no allusion is made to a, an, or the. I know of no 
meaning of article, in the popular acceptation of the term, that is 
applicable to the words generally so called. Why, then, should 
they be so called ? Can this use of the term be sustained by the 
literal meaning of the word article ? Article, derived from L. artt- 
culus, literally means joint, point, particle, etc. Should these words 
be named articles, because they resemble joints ? Where is the 
slightest resemblance to joints ? Conjunctives (conjunctions) have 
a much more striking analogy to joints — they constituting the joints 
or hinges upon which language revolves ; but no one would argue, 
therefore, that we should include conjunctives under the head of 
articles, yet conjunctives are the only words to which this part of 
the definition is applicable. 

Must the be an article, because it is a particle, or little word ? 
Man, boy, he, she, it, by, in, go, fly, and, if, 0, and thousands of 
other words of all parts of speech are equally small ; and, therefore, 
according to this logic, all little words may be classed with arti- 
cles ; thus we should have the language divided into little and large 
words — simplicity with a vengeance ? 

But we are informed that words may have a technical meaning, 
to be understood and applied as defined by the special science or 
art to which they belong. Very well. Let us hear one of our 
grammars in its own defense. 

" Articles are words put before nouns to point them out, or limit 
their meaning." — R. C. Smith, p. 49. 

If the is an article, because it points out a noun, why should we 
exclude the adjective pronouns, this and that, derived from the same 
Saxon word, thion or theon, which words (this and that) much 
more emphatically point out nouns than the so-called article the ? 
The so-called possessive cases of nouns and pronouns also point out 
or limit nouns, and may be often substituted for articles ; as, " She 
looked him in his (the) face." The definition of articles is equally 
> applicable to this class of words, yet this class is utterly excluded. 

A and an are articles, it is said, because they limit nouns ; are 
they the only words that limit nouns ? Does not the numeral one 
limit nouns to the singular number, as well as a and an ? A, an, 
and one are all derived from the same Saxon word, ananad, and 
not only have the same origin, but are used alike ; why should they 
be parsed differently ? 

It must be clear to every reflecting mind, that the definitions 
usually given of articles are sadly wanting in precision, a quality 
essential to a scientific definition. Precision requires that the de- 
finition should not only z'nclude all belonging to the class, but dis- 
tinctly exclude all not so belonging. This definition, however, as 



DEFINITIVES. 9 

has been shown, confounds articles with the possessive cases of nouns 
and pronouns, adjective pronouns, numerals, etc. And what are 
articles, at best, but a species or class of what are usually called 
adjectives. Where the same facts exist, the same conclusions 
should follow. 

Hear another author : " All words in the English language 
which are placed before nouns merely to point them out, or to limit 
the extent of their application, are articles" 1. " Definite articles 
are those which point out or designate the noun ; as, the, this, that, 
those, former, latter. 2. Indefinite articles are those which limit the 
extent of the noun's application ; as, a, an, one, any, ten, all, many. 
3. Numeral articles are either cardinal ; as, one, two, three ; or 
ordinal ; as, first, second, third ; — the former are indefinite, the latter, 
definite." — Pardon Davis. 

It may be observed, that Davis is the only author who has 
ventured to class words according to the definition of article. 

" A or an is styled the indefinite article : it is used in a vague 
sense, etc." — Murray's Gram., p. 32. How can a or an be inde- 
finite ? "Indefinite means not limited, or defined." — "Webster's Die. 
Yet we are told by Murray : "'An article is a word prefixed to 
substantives to point them out, and to show how far their significa- 
tion extends." How can that which points out, or shows how far 
the signification of a noun extends, be vague or indefinite ? It is a 
plain contradiction in terms. I am unable to comprehend how any 
word can limit, and, at the same time, not limit ; therefore, being 
insensible of any propriety of the term indefinite article, I have 
omitted to observe this distinction. Hear Webster : " In all, or 
most English Grammars, an or a is said to be an indefinite article. 
This is not true ; it is used before definite nouns as well as before 
those which are indefinite." — Webster's Gram., p. 4. 

From what has been said, I trust that there is evidently no 
necessity for, nor propriety in, making a separate class of a, an, 
and the. 

See Webster's Die. (Unabridged). — " Article 7. In grammar, 
an adjective is used before nouns, to limit or define their application ; 
as, hie, ille, ipse, in Latin ; 6, fj, to, in Greek ; the, this, that, in 
English ; le, la, les, in French ; il, la, lo, in Italian. * * * * 
But article being an improper term to express the true signification, 
I make use of definitive, which see." Webster, speaking of 
articles, says : "Bat definitive is a more significant and appro- 
priate term." — Webster's Gram., p. 12. 

" An or a, the, this, that, these, those, other, another, one, none, 
some, may be called definitives from their office, which is to limit 
or define the extent of the name to which they are prefixed, or to 
specify particulars. Each and every are distributives, but they wv 
be classed with definitives." — Webster's Gram,, p. 48. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" The small claims of the article to a separate rank as a distinct 
part of speech, ought not to be admitted in a scientific classification 
of words. A and tlie, this and that, ten, few, and fourth, and many 
other words, are used to restrict, vary, or define the signification of 
the nouns to which they are joined." — Kirkham's Gram., p. 64. 

" In a scientific arrangement of grammatical principles, a and 
the belong to that class of adjectives denominated definitives or 
restrictives." — Kirkham's Gram., p. 65. 

Yery well, Mr. Kirkham, I insist most strenuously upon a 
scientific arrangement of grammatical principles, especially in the 
science of grammar, and shall accordingly class them with defini- 
tives, as you have just suggested. 

De Lacy observes that an and a are regarded as articles without 
reason ; and he ranks the with this, that y etc. — See also Encycl. 
Brit, and Edinb. Encycl., Art. Gram. 

" Several French grammarians, M. De Marsais, M. TAbbe" 
Fromont, and others pronounce the words called articles in that 
language, to be adjectives, since they modify their nouns." — 
Frazee, p. 104. 

" The definitives called articles, are of much more importance in 
Greek than in our language, and in that they are considered as 
improperly erected into a distinct part of speech." — Kuhner's 
Greek Gram., p. 313. 

" It is unnecessary, in any language, to regard the articles as a 
distinct part of speech." — Buttman's Greek Grammar. 

" The most approved definition of the article is equally appli- 
cable to the words one, that, this, these, and other definitives ; and 
any definition of the adjective, which is sufficiently comprehensive 
to include the definitives this, that, etc., will include also the words 
a and the. With what propriety, then, can the articles be sepa- 
rated from other definitives, and made to constitute a distinct part 
of speech? The articles are also ranked with adjectives by 
Priestley, E. Oliver, Bell, Elphinstone, M'Culloch, D'Orsey, 
Lindsay, Joel, Greenwood, S. S. Greene, Smetham, Dalton, King, 
Hart, Buchanan, Crane, J. Bussell, Frazee, Cutler, Perley, Swett, 
Day, Goodenow, Willard, Eobins, Felton, Snyder, Butler, S. 
Barrett, Badgley, Howe, Whiting, S. W. Clark, Davenport, 
Fowle, Weld, and others." — See Wells's Gram., p. 69. 

VERBS. 

Q. What are Verbs ? 

1G. A. Verbs express or imply action, and agreg 
with their subjects in number and person; as, "I 
strive; " he improves ;" " John loves Jape." 



VERBS. 11 

Mention or write the verbs; also, the nouns, pronouns, 
descriptives, and definitives, in 

Exercise 5. 

1. Miss Ann sings. 2. Those children walk and talk. 3. That 
girl spells, reads, writes, and ciphers. 4. Dogs run. 5. Fish 
swim. 6. Birds fly. 7. Boys jump. 8. Girls romp. 9. The 
wheel struck her. 10. Alonzo comes soon, but goes back late. 
11. The horse gallops. 12. Cranes catch and eat fish. 13. 
Betty milks the cow. 14. Martha loves her parents. 15. Good 
boys hate vice. 16. Cynthia is a fine girl, she studies well, and 
the instructress will reward her. 17. Boys, stand back. 18. 
Girls, sit up. 

Note 6 — Definitions of the Verb. 

G. Brown says : " So various have been the views of gram- 
marians, respecting this complex and most important part of 
speech, that almost everything that is contained in any theory or 
distribution of the English verbs, may be considered a matter of 
opinion and of dispute. Nay, the essential nature of a verb, in 
Universal Grammar, has never yet been determined by any received 
definition that can be considered unobjectionable. The greatest 
and most acute philologists confess that a faultless definition of 
this part of speech, is difficult, if not impossible, to be formed. 
Home Tooke, at the close of his Diversions of Purley, cites with 
contempt nearly a dozen different attempts at a definition, some 
Latin, some English, some French ; then, with the abruptness of 
affected disgust, breaks off the catalogue and the conversation 
together, leaving his readers to guess, if they can, what he con- 
ceived a verb to be. He might have added some scores of others, 
and probably would have been as little satisfied with any one of them. 
A definition, like that which is given above, may answer, in some 
degree, the purpose of distinction ; but, after all, we must judge 
what is, and what is not a verb, chiefly from our own observation 
of the sense and use of words." At the bottom of the same page 
he continues : " In the following example, < he' and ' she' are con- 
verted into verbs, as 'tkou' sometimes is, in the writings of Shak- 
speare and others: ' Is it not an impulse of selfishness or of a depraved 
nature to he and she inanimate objects V " — Cutler's Eng. Gram.. 
p. 16. Dr. Bullions, who has heretofore published several of the 
worst definitions of the verb anywhere extant, has now perhaps 
one of the best : "A verb is a word used to express the act, being, 
or state of its subject." — Analyt. and Prac. Gram., p. 59. Yet 
it is not very obvious, that " /ie" and " she" are here verbs under 
this definitio. — See G. Brown's Gram, of Grammars, p. 317. 

As the verb is the most important as well as the most difficult 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

part of speech, it is obvious that it should be clearly, distinctly, 
and well defined; that the pupil may properly understand its 
nature and use, and be able readily and promptly to distinguish 
it from other parts of speech. This not having hitherto been 
done, is no reason that the task should not yet be accomplished. 

" Definition is an expression explaining a term, so as to distin- 
guish or separate it from everything else." — True's Logic, p. 40. 
We beg attention and patience, while we examine a number of 
definitions, given by several of our most popular authors, to see to 
what extent Logic has been observed or abused in the various 
definitions of this the most important class of words. 

Section 1. 

"A verb is a word which affirms or asserts ; as, strike, walk, 
be." — John Frost. 

Will a kind husband strike a good wife ? 

Strike, in this sentence, is a verb ; but do I, by the use of the 
verb strike, affirm or assert anything, much less that a kind hus- 
band would be guilty of violence to the person of a good wife ? 
I am sure that I don't mean to make any such assertion. I don't 
understand language in this way, I must confess. 

Do the little girls walk, or ride, to school ? By the use of the 
verbs walk and ride, do you understand me to affirm, or assert, how 
the girls go to school ? If you do, you have learned something 
from me, that I did not know myself. Can you be satisfied with 
Dr. Frost's definition of the verb ? Can be is a verb, says the 
learned Doctor of Laws ; but am I to be understood by this inter- 
rogatory to affirm or assert that you are satisfied with his definition 
of the verb ? I trust you do not so understand me, I certainly did 
not intend to make any such affirmation or assertion. 

2. " A verb is a word by means of which something is affirmed." 
Weld, p. 31. 

3. " A verb is a word by which something is affirmed." — Noble 
Butler, p. 54. Remarkable coincidence of expression between 
ihese two authors. Neither gives credit. Who copied ? 

4. " A verb is a word which affirms something about a noun or 
pronoun." — A. Hart. 

5. " The verb is a word used to assert or to express something 
of the noun or subject." — Bailey's Manual ofEng. Gram., p. 18. 

G. " A verb is a word that expresses an assertion or affirmation ; 
as, * I am ; I teach ; 1 am taught.' " — Wells, p. 82. 

What has been said of Frost's definition of the verb may, with 
equal propriety, be applied to the other five authors just quoted. 
But, lest these authors should feel slighted without farther atten- 
tion, I will venture to propose to them a few interrogatories, 
respectively and respectfully, which they may answer at their leisure. 



VERBS. 13 

As Weld and Butler are so congenial, they may constitute the 
same class, and answer in concert. " Well, gentlemen, are you alike 
or unlike in your definitions of the verb ?" 

In asking this question, do I affirm that you are alike, though I 
use the verb are 1 Do I affirm that you are unlike by asking a 
question, still using the same verb are ? Can a question be an 
affirmation ? Strange doctrine ! If I had affirmed that you are 
alike, or that you are unlike, would the affirmation have been the 
same in both sentences, the same and only verb are being used in 
both. You must readily see that the affirmation is not expressed 
by the verb are, but by the descriptives like and unlike, otherwise 
there would be no difference in the affirmation. " John is indus- 
trious ; but William is indolent." Here are two very different 
affirmations, yet the same verb is, is employed in both sentences. 
Evidently this difference in the affirmations is expressed by the 
descriptives industrious and indolent. " Henry recites well ; but 
Joseph recites badly." Here are two very different affirmations, 
though the same verb recites is used in both examples. The 
difference of assertion here appears to be made by the use of the 
adverbs well and badly. 

" Robert went to school, though Stephen went from school." 
The change in sense appears to be effected by the use of the rela- 
tives to and from (Prepositions). 

" Mary tells the truth, though Sarah tells falsehoods." The 
difference in assertion here is obviously made by the use of the 
different nouns truth and falsehood. 

The definitions under consideration must be rather vague, not 
distinguishing verbs from descriptives, adverbs, relatives, and even 
nouns. 

" A verb is a word which affirms something about a noun or 
pronoun." — A. Hart. 

" Peter is a fool ; but she is wise." Here are two very different 
assertions, though the same verb is used in both sentences. This 
difference in the affirmation is expressed not by the verb is, I 
apprehend, but by the noun fool, and the descriptive wise. As 
the words fool and wise affirm something of the noun Peter, and the 
pronoun she, according the definition above, they are verbs : rather 
an omnibus affair. 

" The verb is a word used to assert, or to express something of 
the noun or subject." — Bailey's Gram,., p. 18. 

"Jack is mischievous, but intelligent." Two very different 
assertions are here made of Jack. Are they made by the verb is, 
or chiefly by the descriptives mischievous and intelligent ? If the 
various assertions alluded to are, or can possibly be, expressed by 
the verb is, it must be a most prolific term — a magic egg-bag 
truly ! 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" A verb is a word that expresses an assertion or affirmation ; 
as, ' I am ; I teach ; I am taught. 5 " — Wells, p. 82. 

Am I taught the nature of a verb by this definition ? I most 
assuredly do not mean to assert or affirm any such thing by this 
question, though I have employed the expression, am taught. 
Wells, in the margin of the same page, remarks : li The idea of a 
verb is not easily expressed in a single sentence. The definition 
here adopted is based on the most distinguishing characteristic of 
this part of speech ; and is substantially the same as that (he might 
have said those) of Priestley, Blair, Harris, Beatie, Crombie, 
Andrews and Stoddard, the British Grammar, Rees's Encylc, 
Brewster's Encycl., Grant, Sutcliffe, M'Culloch, Bullions, Fletcher, 
Cooper, Goldsbury, Frost, Parkhurst, Butler, Hart, and others." 

I must confess, I am at no little loss to understand how assertion 
or affirmation can be li the most distinguishing characteristic of 
this part of speech ;" it being equally the office of nouns, descrip- 
tives, adverbs, relatives and their objects, and not unfrequently 
whole phrases or sentences, to express assertion or affirmation ; but, 
as this definition is substantially the same as those of the authors 
cited, what has been said of one may, with equal propriety, be said 
of the others. 

Section 2. 

7. " A verb is a word which expresses action or being." — 
Greenleaf, p. 8. 

8. " A verb is a word that expresses action or being." — R. 0. 
Smith, p. 62. 

9. " Any word representing action or being is a verb ; as, write, 
be, think" — Pardon Davis. 

10. " An assertor is a part of speech used to assert, to express 
existence, or a fact in relation to a person, or thing." — Pierce, p. 99. 

I venture to say that Greenleaf and Smith resemble each other 
in their definitions of the verb as much as any two authors in 
existence. What part of speech is existence in the preceding 
sentence? Pierce has just told us, that an assertion (a verb) is a 
part of speech used to assert, to express existence, etc. The close 
resemblance between these two definitions might suggest the idea 
of plagiarism. The close resemblance spoken of is a fact, and 
resemblance expresses that fact ; unless Mr. Pierce thinks plagiar- 
ism most expressive of that fact, however, he may have either 
resemblance or plagiarism to assert or express the fact. Will 
Mr. Pierce parse the noun plagiarism as an as3ertor (a verb), 
because it better expresses the fact, than the other noun resem- 
blance ? Compare these words with his definition. 

Pardon Davis improves upon Greenleaf and Smith, by saying, 
" Any word representing action or being is a verb." 



PARTICIPLE. 16 

The noun existence, just used, certainly represents being ; and is 
existence, therefore, an assertor or verb ? " The boys ran the race 
in quick time." Here race represents as much action as ran, or 
auy other verb. Is race, therefore, a verb ? I am now writing 
about three authors, that obviously had a very poor idea of the 
nature a,nd use, as well as the distinctive peculiarities, of the verb ; 
or, otherwise, they would have made us more sensible of its specific 
difference — the legitimate office of a logical definition. " I am now 
writing." Does the verb am, or the participle writing, represent, 
express, or assert action ? " Writing — certainly." But writing is a 
participle. Is there no difference between verbs and participles ? 
If not, why separate them ? Why make a distinction without a 
difference ? If there is a difference, it must be important that we 
should know it, in order the more efficiently to comprehend and ap- 
preciate the distinction. 

" Why did Pierce call these words assertors ?" 

" Is it the only office of these words to assert?" 

" Are verbs always used to assert ?" 

" Are not other parts of speech used to assert, or to express 
existence, or a fact in relation to a person or thing ?" 

M Can Pierce answer these questions ?" 

11 Was he ignorant of these things ?" I presume not. 

Do the italicized verbs, in the questions immediately preceding, 
assert, or express existence, or facts in relation to Mr. Pierce ? And 
especially, " Was he ignorant of these things ? 

PARTICIPLE. 

Q. What are Participles ? 

17. A. Participles express or imply action, and 
qualify nouns and pronouns ; as, " The setting sun 
reminds us of declining years ;" " James is smitten 
with Ellen." 

18. Rem. Participles are derived from verbs, and partake, also, 
the nature of descriptives, hence called participles. 

19. Rem. Participles frequently degenerate into mere descrip- 
tives ; as, " The setting sun," etc. Such are sometimes called parti- 
cipial descriptives ; as 5 " A pleasing thing." 

Write the participles ■, and mention the nouns, pronouns, 
descriptives, definitives, and verbs, in 

Exercise 6. 
1. The sun is shining. 2. The rain is falling. 3. The farmer 
was laboring. 4. The winds are roaring. 5. I found her assisting 



1G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

him. 6. He was teaching successfully. 7. William was mortified 
at his loss. 8. The stream, being swollen by the rains, overflowed 
its banks. 9. She, being admired and applauded, became vain. 10. 
Isaac befriended the deserted man. 11. The apple was eaten. 12. 
The laboring man should not be defrauded. 13. The man, losing 
his money, was forsaken by his friends. 14. The dove was caught. 

ADVERBS. 

Q. What are Adverbs ? 

20. A. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, verbal 
and participial nouns ; as, " Susan dances elegantly ;" 
" The boys are learning rapidly ;" " Henrietta pro- 
mises to write soon ;" "By managing well, he secured 
the prize." 

Write the Adverbs, and the words which they qualify, 
in different columns; also mention the other parts of speech 
(except Relatives, and Conjunctives), in 

Exercise 7. 

1. The girls sing delightfully. 2. Henry improves rapidly. 3. 
Mary walks gracefully. 4. The Mayor will return soon. 5. An- 
gella writes admirably. 6. Charles learns fast. 7. Boys that 
study hard will stand high in their classes. 8. Who came first? 9. 
Junius returned last. 10. I expect my father to-morrow. 11. My 
mother left yesterday. 12. He sometimes neglects his best interests. 
13. Fanny will not study. 14. The lads are working steadily. 
15. The Institution is progressing prosperously. 16. The kite was 
wafted upward. 17. My friends have gone away. 18. The 
goods have been secreted somewhere. 19. The offense was given 
undesignedly. 20. Hall composes well. 21. Our pastor comes to 
see us often. 22. The boys came in late. 23. Never tell a false- 
hood. 

RELATIVES. [Prepositions.] 
Q. What is a Relative ? 

21. A. A Relative is put before a noun or pro- 
noun to show its relation to some preceding word, 
phrase, or sentence ; as, " Clifford was in the house, 
and threw the book into the fire ;" " The hat is un- 
der his arm ;" " Your cap is on her head." 



RELATIVES. 17 

Write the relatives, and mention all the other parts of 
speech, in 

Exercise 8. 

1. John is below stairs ; but William is above stairs. 2. The 
parrot is in the cage. 3. My friend went over the river. 4. His 
saddle is on her horse. 5. Joseph was a man of virtue. 6. That 
fellow is standing by the window at the end of the church. 7. 
Your hat is under the table. 

Note 7 — Preposition. 

What is a preposition ? " The term preposition is derived from 
the Latin propositus, which signifies placed before." What does 
the term preposition, as applied to a class of words, teach ? " The 
position or place of words." N. Webster appears to understand 
grammar authors to teach that prepositions are so called, being 
put before other words ; and he was well and extensively acquainted 
with grammars. 

Which are the prepositions in the following sentence ? 

" He held the book under his right arm." " All teachers and 
authors consider wider a preposition, and the only one in this sen- 
tence, because under is placed before arm." Not so fast. All 
teachers and authors do not consider under a preposition. What 
do you call his and right, in the sentence just alluded to ? " His 
is a pronoun ; right is an adjective. I know all instructors would 
so call them." Not quite all. But where are the words his and 
right placed ? " They are placed before arm, evidently." You 
have just insisted that under is a preposition, and the only one in 
the sentence, because it is placed before arm ; but now you admit 
that his and right are, also, placed before arm ; if so, why should 
these words not be classed with prepositions, as well as under, as 
preposition teaches the position or place of a word? These 
words, being placed immediately, while under is placed more re- 
motely, before arm, certainly have as good and as striking a claim 
to be called prepositions as under. Is it not as important to learn 
the position of his and right, as to know the position of under ? 
" Certainly, but the grammars do not so call them, and I dare not 
venture a-head of the grammars." Are not all the words in this 
sentence placed before arm? "I believe they are." 

When a word is placed before another, what must it be called ? 
" The grammars say that a word placed before another is a prepo- 
sition, yet all the words in the sentence are placed before others, 
except the last word " I don't understand the propriety of calling 
some prepositions, signifying their position, while others similarly 
situated are not called prepositions ; but, to tell the truth, I don't 
like to be quizzed so closely. These words have been called pre- 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

positions ever since the dark ages, and should we change them, we 
might be called innovators, perhaps humbugs, by the ignorant 
populace and selfish or prejudiced teachers. If a word placed 
before another is a preposition, what may those words be called 
which are placed after other words ? " They might, I suppose, with 
equal propriety, be called post-positions ; but I don't see any sense 
in calling words either prepositions or post-positions.' ' Neither 
do I. I should like to have a more appropriate name for this part 
of speech. To call them prepositions is only saying that they are 
placed before — a fact no child, having eyes or ears, could long be 
ignorant of, and of precious little consequence when learned. 
" What would you call them ?" It is the office of the class of words 
under consideration to show the relation of words ; consequently, I 
call them relatives — a term most suggestive of their use, wish- 
ing to teach the use, not the position or place, of words. It is 
both unreasonable and unkind to expect pupils to understand and 
appreciate what neither teachers nor authors can explain. 

EXCLAMATION. [Interjection.] 
Q. What is au Exclamation ? 

22. A. An Exclamation is any sudden expression 
of calling, joy, grief, disgust, wonder, etc. ; as, Of 
ah ! alas ! foh ! strange ! 

Write the Exclamations, and mention the other parts 
of speech, in 

Exercise 9. 

1. Oh ! what a fall was there. 2. Alas ! I fear for life. 3. 
Hush ! our instructor is at the door. 4. ! that I had the wings 
of a dove. 5. Fie! how angry he is. 6. Ah! must I endure all 
this pain. 7. Well! what shall we do then ? 8. Strange! I did 
not -know you. 9. Huzza ! my brave fellows, the day is in our 
favor. 10. What! take my money, my life, too! 11. Plalloo ! 
what work are you doing. 12. Lo ! the earth receives him from 
the bending skies. 

Note 8 — Interjections. 

" Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of a 
sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the speaker ; as, 
* Oh ! I alienated my friend ;' i Alas ! I fear for life ;' * virtue ! how 
amiable thou art.' " — L. Murray's Grammar. 

Both the name and the definition of the class of words under 
consideration are objectionable. 1st. The metaphysical and difficult 
term " emotion" has been employed to explain the plain, easy, and 



EXCLAMATION. 19 

self-defining term Interjection. Should the more difficult expression 
be used to illustrate the less difficult ? Is this the true philosophy 
of instruction ? Is this the order of progress ? Shall we render 
that which may be partially seen more clear, by making the mists 
thicker, the clouds heavier, or bring the object to perfect light by 
increasing ten-fold the existing darkness ? Would it not be more 
in accordance with the principles of mental science, to teach what 
is unknown, by a comparison with that which is known, and thus 
elucidate unintelligible terms by the use of plain, easy, and more 
familiar words ? 

" Interjections express the passions or emotions of the speaker." 
The terms, passions and emotions, appear to be interchangeable, 
and they are affirmed of all Interjections. The first axiom in 
logic is, that, " whatever is universally affirmed or denied of any 
class of things, is equally applicable to each and every member of 
that class." But many words included under this head do not 
express the slightest passion or emotion, whereas, passion, or 
emotion, is affirmed of the whole class. How conclusive, then, that 
this affirmation is incorrect, and the definition not logical, the 
major premise being untenable. 

When the student meets with the class of words called Interjec- 
tions, and finds that they neither express passion nor emotion, and 
are not " thrown in between the parts of a sentence," how is he to 
designate them? What name will he give them, finding they do 
not correspond with the definition of the Interjection ? He 
certainly will be no little contused and embarrassed. This question 
may not only leave the young tyro, but older heads, discouraged 
and perplexed, particularly, as it is to be encountered at the very 
threshold of the subject, even before the student can distinguish the 
different parts of speech. This leaves the subject rather obscure. 

But obscurity and vagueness are not all the objections to this 
definition. Is it true that these words are thrown in between the 
parts of a sentence ? If so, the learned Author has been singularly 
unfortunate in his exemplifications of the fact. In the selections 
following his definition, do you find the so-called Interjections oh, 
alas, and 0, thrown in between the parts of a sentence or not ? 
Do you ever find them correctly so placed ? Hundreds of authors, 
with little expense of thought, have assented to this doctrine ; and 
thousands of teachers have re-echoed the same, time and again, yet 
it is contrary to our own senses. Which shall we do, credit 
authority, or believe and follow our own senses ? 

Why should such words as 0, ah, alas, etc., be called Inter- 
jections ? The term Interjection is derived from two Latin words, 
inter, between, and jacio to throw ; hence, Interjection signifies 
thrown in between ; but, as it has been shown, that this class of 
words is rarely, if ever, correctly thrown in between — where is the 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

significancy or propriety in calling them Interjections ? Admitting, 
however, that these words were thrown in, the term Interjection 
would simply signify the position or place, an immaterial fact at 
best ; but, this not being the case, the term is inappropriate, and 
the definition untrue. We would prefer a name for this part of 
speech, which is appropriate, and as much as possible suggestive of 
the character and use of this class of words, hence we employ the 
significant and self-defining name Exclamation as most character- 
istic. 

Hear what Noah Webster says : " They are called interjections, 
words thrown in between the parts of a sentence. But this is not 
always the fact, and the name is insignificant. The more appro- 
priate name is exclamation." — Noah Webster's Gram., p. 85. 

CONJUNCTIVE. [Conjunction.] 
Q. What are Conjunctives ? 

23. A. Conjunctives connect sentences, or words 
of the same construction ; as, " William and John 
study ; but Peter plays." 

Write the conjunctives, also point out all the parts of 
speech, in 

Exercise 10. 

1. John rises early in the morning, and pursues his studies. 2. 
He has equal knowledge, but inferior judgment. 3. James will go, 
or send. 4. Thompson and Jane will succeed, because they are 
industrious. 5. He committed murder, therefore he must die. 6. 
He was poor ; but he might have been rich. 7. She cannot 
succeed, unless she applies herself constantly, vigorously, and 
prudently. 8. Simplicity and brevity are the characteristics of 
perfection or truth. 9. Mary and William are young, yet they 
do not fear, for they are careful. — Fowle's Gram., p. 45. 10. 
William and Mary ride often ; but Sarah rides seldom, though she 
needs exercise if anybody does. — Ibid. 11. Ye shall not eat of it, 
neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die. — Gen., iii. 12. He studies 
grammar, that he may learn to speak and write correctly. 

Note 9 — Conjunction. 

Why use the term Conjunctive instead of Conjunction ? These 
words differ as cause and effect. Conjunctive, from the two Latin 
words, con, to gather, and jungo to join, signifies to join together ; 
hence words serving to join sentences or words should be called 
Conjunctives ; the effect of such union being a Conjunction. The 



CONJUNCTIVE. 21 

Conjunctives and, but, if though, yet, etc., are the means, not the 
result, of the connection ; therefore, to call them conjunctions is to 
confound cause and effect. Webster calls these words Connectives, 
a name certainly much more appropriate than the term Conjunc- 
tion ; but, if Conjunction was a suitable name for this class of 
words, why does he substitute Connective ? But, as the use of Con- 
nective involves a tautology in the definition ; as, " Connectives 
connect, etc., I regard Conjunctive preferable to Connective. 

K. C. Smith, on page 37, says, " A conjunction is used to connect 
words and sentences together." In some instances conjunctives 
connect words together ; in other places conjunctives connect sen- 
tences together. Though I have sought diligently, yet I have not 
found a single example in which a conjunctive (conjunction) con- 
nects words and sentences together, i. e., words with sentences. 
Consequently, I believe that Smith's definition of Conjunction is 
not applicable to a solitary word in the language, nor is the term 
conjunction appropriate. 

Note 10 — Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions. 

Murray, E. C. Smith, Kirkham, G-. Brown, Bullions, Bailey, and 
a few others divide Conjunctions into Copulative and Disjunctive ; 
but, having observed this division to be unnecessary, inelegant, and 
a contradiction in terms, I have ventured to disregard it. 

I deem it unnecessary, because the name Conjunctive itself suffi- 
ciently determines the- character and use of these words. Conjunc- 
tion, from the Latin conjunction means union ; Copulative, from the 
Latin Copulo, means to unite ; hence these two terms, Copulative 
and Conjunction, meaning substantially the same, are consequently 
synonymous ; therefore one is superfluous, and should be rejected. 

Copulative conjunction is certainly a most glaring tautology. 
tVe could, with the same propriety, say a human man, a feminine 
woman, a feline cat, a canine dog, etc. As Disjunctive is diamet- 
rically the opposite of Conjunction, signifying to disjoin, Dis- 
junctive Conjunction, meaning to join and also disjoin at the same 
time, is a contradiction in terms, to say the least of it, and a most 
palpable absurdity ; therefore I am unable to see the force, beauty, 
advantage, or necessity of this division. 

" The old distinction of Conjunctions into Copulative and Dis- 
junctive was founded in error and is happily going into disuse in 
our grammars." — Frazee. 

" The idea of a word's having the power of joining and disjoining 
at the same time, is absurd ; and still more so to join in a disjoining 
manner." — Frazee, p. 113. 

^ " Conjunctions are generally divided into copulative and dis- 
junctive ; but more confusion than practical advantage seems to be 
derived from the division." — G-oodenow. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" I shall not take up time, and confuse the understanding of the 
learner, by dividing the words considered as conjunctions, into 
copulative, disjunctive, concessive, etc." — Lewis. 

" The common division of the words termed Conjunctions — into 
Copulative ; as, and ; Disjunctive ; as, either, or ) nor, etc. ; Conces- 
sive ; as, though, although, yet ; Adversative ; as, but, however ; 
Casual ; as, for, because, since ; Illatives ; as, therefore, wherefore, 
then ; Conditional ; as, if; Exceptive ; as, unless — deserves little 
consideration . " — G-r ant . 

" But is called in our grammars, a disjunctive conjunction, con- 
necting sentences, but expressing opposition in the sense." To 
illustrate the use of this word which joins and disjoins at the same 
time, Lowth gives this example : " You and I rode to London, but 
Peter stayed at home." Here the bishop supposed the but to ex- 
press an opposition in the sense. But let but be omitted, and what 
difference will the omission make in the sense ? 

" You and I rode to London, Peter stayed at home." 

Is the opposition in the sense less clearly marked than when the 
conjunction is used ? By no means. And the truth is, that the 
opposition in the sense, when there is any, is never expressed by 
the connective at all, but always by the following sentence or 
phrase : *' They have mouths, but they speak not ; eyes have they 
but they see not." — Psalm 115 . 5. Let but be omitted : — " They 
have mouths, they speak not ; eyes have they, they see not." The 
omission of the connectives makes not the smallest alteration in the 
sense, so far as opposition or difference of idea in the members of 
the sentence is concerned. Indeed the bishop is most unfortunate 
in the example selected to illustrate his rule ; for the copulative 
and may be used for but, without the least alteration in the sense. 
" You and I rode to London, and Peter stayed at home." In 
this sentence the opposition is as completely expressed as if but was 
used ; which proves that the opposition in the sense has no depend- 
ence on the connective. 

Nor is it true that an opposition in the sense always follows but ; 
" Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word which pro- 
ceeded out of the mouth of God." — Matt. 4. 4. Here the last 
clause expresses no opposition, but merely an additional fact. 

" The true sense of but when used for bote, is supply, more, further, 
something additional, to complete the sense — it may be in opposi- 
tion to what has preceded or in continuation only. In general, 
however, the word but is appropriately used before a clause of a 
sentence, intended to introduce a new and somewhat different idea, 
by way of modifying the sense of the preceding clause. This use 
is very naturally deduced from the original sense of the word, some- 
thing further which is to make complete or qualify what has pre- 
ceded." — Webster's Gram., p. 84. 



COMMON GENDER. 23 

24. As the same word may often belong to different parts 
of speech, point out the part of speech of each of the italicized 
words in 

Exercise 11. 

1. Iron is a hard metal. 2. Iron bars are used for prying or 
digging. 3. Black-smiths iron carriages. 4. This is good for us. 
5. Love God ; for he loves you. 6. Give me that book. 7. The 
child that was sick died. 8. I tell you that you must try. 9. He is 
sick ; but you are well. 10. All but him had fled. 11. We are 
but (only) of yesterday. 12. Calm was the day, and the scene 
delightful. 13. We may expect a calm after a storm. 14. You 
may prevent passion more easily than you can calm it. 15. The 
fair was numerously attended. 16. His character is fair and 
honorable. 17. Fair and softly go far. 18. Damp air is un- 
wholesome. 19. Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest 
hours. 20. Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard 
ones. 21. The hail was very destructive. 22. Hail ! virtue, 
source of every good. 23. We hail you as friends. 24. Yester- 
day was a fine day. 25. I rode out yesterday. 26. I shall write 
to-morrow. 27. Ta-morrow may be brighter than to-day. 28. 
Will you go to town to-day 9 . 29. Hannah's love is constant. 
30. I love my parents. 31. James read the love story. 32. 
Which book did Henry take ? 33. The book which Henry took 
was soiled. 34. Jane is well. 35. She reads ivell. 36. Well ! 
what shall I do ? 37. He that cometh after me is preferred before 
me. 38. She came after you left. 39. He was in the after part 
of the ship. 40. He stood before the people. 41. They kneeled 
before they fought. 42. To inscribe a circle within a circle. 43. 
He received on the within bond five hundred dollars. 44. Thougn 
he reproves me, yet I esteem him. 45. She has not yet come. 46. 
If he has commanded it, then I must obey. 47. Did you hear it 
thunder then ? 48. The message was sent by him. 49. He stood 
by at the time. 50. They act their parts well. 51. The act was 
well performed by them. 52. Mr. Rice has five dollars in gold. 
53. We use Rice's gold pens. 54. He has equal knowledge, but 
inferior judgment. 55. She is his inferior in sense, but his equal 
in prudence. 

PART II. 

Note 11 — Common Gender. 

Most of the grammars in common use ascribe to nouns three or 
four genders, the propriety of which it might be well to investi- 
gate. 

R. C. Smith, in his Productive Grammar, lays down four 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§enders ; namely, masculine, feminine, neuter, and common. Mr. 
>mith, what is gender ? " Gender signifies sex.' 9 Very well. 
How many sexes ? " There are two sexes, male and female." 

Nature created two sexes, or two genders ; but Mr. Smith has 
transcended these limits, and assigns nouns four genders : truly 
may his system be called productive, as it has produced two 
additional genders. By-the-by, who ever heard of a grammar 
being productive before ? 

J shall venture, however, to abide the decision of nature, and 
content myself with two genders, assigning only what nature has 
given. 

"Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex." — 
Murray, p. 34. " Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard 
to sex." — Bullions, p. 22. Remarkable coincidence between these 
two authors. Who copied ? " Gender is the distinction of objects 
with regard to sex." " There are four genders : the masculine 
feminine, the common, and the neuter." — Wells, p. 54. " Nouns 
that are applicable alike to both sexes are of the common gender ; 
as, parent, child, friend." — Wells, p. 55. It appears from Wells, 
as well as from Murray and Bullions, that gender is a distinction, 
etc. ; but how can common gender, a term " applicable alike to 
both sexes, 97 be distinctive of either ? Are the sexes or genders of 
parent, child, friend, distinguished by calling them common gender ? 
If gender is a distinction, how can it be properly applied where there 
is professedly no distinction known ? Webster tells us, " gender 
means sex — male or female." You call parent common gender ; 
from this expression can we determine the sex of parent ? whether 
male or female ; father or mother ? If you can determine by the con- 
text or 'otherwise, that parent means father, call it masculine 
gender ; but, if allusion is made to mother, in like manner, give it 
feminine gender ; but, if you don't know the sex, you are also igno- 
rant of the gender, consequently I consider it worse than folly to try 
to impart to others information which we have not ourselves ; there- 
fore, regarding the common gender as worse than useless, I suggest 
that it be dispensed with altogether. I have never yet found it to 
answer any practicable purpose. " Mary's kitten is very playful, 
it is quite a pet with the whole family." What gender is kitten ? 
" Common gender, because it is either male or female.' 1 What gender 
is the pronoun it ? "It is neuter gender — no gender, or neither 
male nor female. 11 What does the pronoun it represent ? " The 
same animal that kitten does, of course." Listen ! in the first example 
you call kitten common gender; you say that the pronoun it " stands 
for kitten, 11 and is of the neuter gender, notwithstanding your rule 
says, u Pronouns agree with their nouns in gender, etc." Indeed, 
this is a remarkable kitten that is said to be of the " common 
gender, either male or female." and a moment after it is declared 



NEUTER GENDER. 25 

to be of the " neuter gender" — neither male nor female. I did 
not know that nature had ever created such an animal. Natural 
history furnishes no account of such monsters. 

I don't comprehend how any animal has, yet has not, gender at 
the same time. This lays hocus jpocus in the shade. How can two 
words agree in gender, while they are of two distinct genders ? 
This is too gross a misrepresentation of nature — too clear a viola- 
tion of universal rule — too plain a contradiction — too palpable an 
absurdity — to receive further or more serious refutation. 

Although these misrepresentations, contradictions, inaccuracies, 
and absurdities may appear ever so inconsistent and incredible, yet 
they constitute a considerable portion of the daily lessons in our 
Academies and Seminaries ; notwithstanding, the teachers of our 
Institutions generally acknowledge the deficiency and incorrectness 
of the prevailing systems of grammar. Many of our instructors 
seem to be grievously destitute of independence of thought and ac- 
tion ; they appear afraid to combat the tide of public sentiment, or, 
rather, are too timid even to jostle the shackles of ignorant and bar- 
barous days ; or they would boldly come out the advocates of truth, 
and fearlessly expose the ignorance and error which, like the Egyp- 
tian darkness, hang around so densely that they may be both seen 
and felt. Many appear to forget that it is their moral duty : " To 
reject that which is evil, and cleave unto that which is good.'* It 
is much to be lamented that so many prefer " an old error to a new 
truth." 

Hear Murray, G. Brown, and Clark on this point. 

" Many nouns are equally applicable to both sexes ; as, cousin, 
friend, neighbor, parent, person, servant." 

The gender of these is usually determined by the context. 

To such words, some grammarians have applied the unnecessary 
and improper term " common gender." Murray justly observes, 
" There is no such gender belonging to the language. The business 
of parsing can be effectually performed without having recourse to 
a common gender" 

" The term is more useful, and less liable to objection, as applied 
to the learned languages ; but with us it is plainly a solecism." — 
Goold Brown, p. 244, Obs. 2. 

" Many nouns which denote the office or condition of persons, 
and some others, are not distinguished by gender ; Ex., parent, 
cousin, friend, neighbor." — Clark's Gram., p. 45, Obs. 4. 

Note 12 — Neuter Gender. 

" The Neuter Gender denotes whatever is without sex ; as, milk." 

— Bullions. " Neuter gender — The names of objects that are 

neither males nor females." — E. C. Smith, p. 9. Is it the province 

of science to teach the real qualities of things, or to enumerate pro- 

2 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

perties not possessed ? The latter, it appears to me, would be an 
endless and fruitless task. Where would such enumerations end ? 
What purpose could they answer, if accomplished ? What end can 
it subserve to teach children, that such words as milk, ink-stand, 
etc., are destitute of sex, or are of neither sex ? Is it ever neces- 
sary to teach any child having sense enough to learn grammar, that 
milk, ink-stand, etc., are neither males nor females ; neither boys 
nor girls ? I can see no possible benefit derivable from instruction 
imparting no additional information, Let us hear a defense from 
some of the neuter gender grammarians. See Kirkham's Gram., 
p. 35. " Neuter gender means no gender. Strictly speaking, then, 
as there are but two sexes, nouns have but two genders ; but for 
the sake of practical convenience, we apply to them three genders, 
by calling that a gender which is no gender." Plausible reasoning, 
truly. Is this the best defense ? As " Neuter gender means no gen- 
der," to give nouns neuter gender, is obviously to give them nothing 
— rather a poor gift. I see no reason why Mr. Kirkham and all 
other authors and grammar teachers should not speak strictly. 
He says, " strictly speaking, nouns have but two genders, as there 
are but two sexes." Then, why give them three genders ? What 
practical convenience can there be in applying three genders, " by 
calling that a gender which is no gender ?" I know of but one 
reason, that was, to adapt his book to the very humble attainments 
of fogy teachers, who teach the book irrespective of truth, reason, 
or the understanding, " by calling that a gender which is no gen- 
der. " It seems this author delights in huge absurdities. But some 
allowance is to be made for him : he is frank, but timorous ; ac- 
knowledges the truth, yet too timid to reject error, lest he should 
commit the sin of innovation, and become obnoxious to the old 
fogies — the grannies in literature. 

It often stands for a phrase or sentence. If the pronoun it has 
any gender, it must take it from its antecedent ; for the pronoun 
must agree with its antecedent in gender, etc. ; but whoever heard 
of phrases and sentences having sex, or gender ? 

" Strict propriety will allow the names of animals only to be 
modified by gender." — Clark's Gram., p. 44. 

Mr. Clark, " strict propriety" is as requisite in grammar as in 
any other science, indeed, I regard it as indispensable. 

H In strictness of language, we could not, perhaps, apply the term 
gender to things destitute of all sexual properties." — Cobbett's 
Gram., p. 29. 

" In strictness of language,'' we should not apply a term to any 
thing destitute of the property expressed by the term— this must 
be as self-evident as any axiom. " The names of things without sex 
are also without gender." — Hornb Tooke, p. 45. 

" The masculine gender belongs to males — the feminine to fc- 



GENDEB. 27 

males, and the neuter to nothing at all ! ! ! — James Brown, p. 
473. 

" But as sex belongs only to living or animate beings, it is 
plain that the names of all inanimate things must be without any 
proper gender." — Prof. F. A. P. Barnard's Gram., p. 84. 

GENDER. 

Q. What is Gender ? 

25. A. Gender is a distinction in nouns and pro- 
nouns, to denote a difference of sex. 

Q. How many genders have nouns and pronouns, and what are they ? 

26. A. There being two sexes, male and female, we 
must naturally have two genders, Masculine and Fe- 
minine, to correspond. 

Q. What does the Masculine Gender denote ? 

29. A. The Masculine gender denotes males ; as, 
man, boy, king, ox, etc. 

Q. What does the Feminine Gender denote 1 

28. A. The Feminine gender denotes females; as, 
woman, girl, queen, cow, etc. 

Give the gender of the following nouns, and the reasons 
why so considered ; viz., father, uncle, brother, mother, 
aunt, sister, nephew, niece. 

Each pupil may here be required to give additional 
examples of both genders. 

29. Rem. — The gender of nouns may be distinguished in three 
ways : Firstly, by different words ; as, brother, sister ; secondly, by 
difference of termination ; as, actor, actress ; thirdly, by a prefix 
or postfix ; as, a he-goat, a she-goat 

Each pupil should become so familiar with the follow- 
ing table of genders, that every one in the class may be 
able promptly and accurately to give the corresponding 
gender to any noun mentioned. 



28 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 





Exercise 12. 






TABLE OF 


GENDERS. 






1. By different words ; as 


*i 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Bachelor, 


Maid. 


Lord, 


Lady. 


Beau, 


Belle. 


Man, 


Woman. 


Bridegroom, 
Boy, 


Bride. 
Girl. 


Master 

(a ruler, etc.), 


> Mistress. 


Brother, 


Sister. 


Master (a lad) 


, Miss. 


Buck, 
Bull, 


Doe. 
Cow. 


Mister (a term Kr., 
of respect), } Mistress, miss. 


Bullock, steer 


•, Heifer. 


Nephew, 


Niece. 


Drake, 


Duck. 


Papa, 


Mamma. 


Father, 


Mother. 


Pa, 


Ma. 


Friar, monk, 


Nun. 


Bam, buck, 


Ewe (p. yu). 


Gander, 
Gentleman, 


Goose, 
j Lady, 
( Gentlewoman. 


Singer, 
Sir, 


J Songstress, 
( Singer. 
Madam. 


Hart, 


Roe. 


Son, 


Daughter. 


Horse, 


Mare. 


Swain, 


Nymph. 


Husband, 


Wife. 


Uncle, 


Aunt. 


King, 


Queen. 


Wizard, 


Witch. 


Lad, 


Lass. 






2. 


By difference of termination ; as, 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Abbot, 


Abbess. 


Doctor, 


Doctress. 


Accuser, 


Accuseress. 


Don, 


Donna. 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Duke, 


Duchess. 


Adulator, 


Adulatress. 


Eagle, 


Eagless. 


Administrator, Administratrix. 


Editor, 


Editress. 


Arbiter, 


Arbitress. 


Elector, 


Electress. 


Archer, 


Archeress. 


Embassador, 


Embassadress. 


Auditor, 


Auditress. 


Emperor, 


< Emperess, 
I Empress. 


Barber, 


Barberess. 


Baron, 


Baroness. 


Emulator, 


Emulatress. 


Benefactor, 


Benefactress. 


Enchanter, 


Enchantress. 


Caterer, 


Cateress. 


Executor, 


J Executrix, 
( Executress. 


Conductor, 


Conductress. 


Creator, 


Creatress. 


Founder, 


Foundress. 


Dauphin, 


Dauphiness. 


Giant, 


Giantess. 


Deacon, 


Deaconess. 


God, 


Goddess. 


Demon, 


Demoness. 


Heir, 


Heiress. 


Director, 


J Directress, 
I Directrix. 


Hermit, 


Hermitess. 


Hero, 


Heroine. 



GENDER. 



29 



MASCULINE. 

Host, 

Hunter, 

Idolater, 

Inventor, 

Instructor, 

Inheritor, 

Jew, 

Lion, 

Mayor, 

Mediator, 

Minister, 

Monarch, 

Monitor, 

Negro, 

Orator, 

Porter, 

Patron, 

Peer, 

Poet, 

Priest, 

Prince, 

Professor, 

Prophet, 

Proprietor, 



FEMININE. 

Hostess. 

Huntress. 

Idolatress. 

Inventress. 

Instructress. 

Inheritress. 

Jewess. 

Lioness. 

Mayoress. 
I Mediatress, 
\ Mediatrix. 

Ministress. 

Monar chess. 

Monitress. 

Negress. 

Oratress, oratrix. 

iPorteress, 
Portress. 
Patroness. 
Peeress. 
Poetess, 
Priestess. 
Princess. 
Professor ess. 
Prophetess. 
Proprietress. 



MASCULINE. 

Protector, 
Progenitor, 

Hector, \ 

Eegent, 
Saint, 

Seamster, -j 

Shepherd, 
Solicitor, 
Songster, 
Sorcerer, 
Steward, 

Sultan, 

Spectator, 

Suitor, 

Tailor, 

Testator, 

Tiger, 

Traitor, 

Tutor, 

Tyrant, 

Victor, 

Votary, 

Widower, 



FEMININE. 

Protectress. 

Progenitress, 
j Rectress, 
I Rectrix. 

Regentess. 

Saintess. 

{Seamstress, 
Seamsteress. 

Shepherdess. 

Solicitress. 

Songstress. 

Sorceress. 

Stewardess, 
j Sultaness, 
( Sultana. 

Spectatress. 

Suitoress. 

Tailoress. 

Testatrix. 

Tigress. 

Traitoress. 

Tutoress. 

Tyrantess. 

Yictoress. 

Votaress. 

Widow. 



3. By a prefix or postfix ; as, 



MASCULINE. 

A brideman, 

A he-goat, 

A he-bear, 

A landlord, 

A male child, 

Male descendants, 

Male relations, 

Man-servant, 

Merman, 

School-boy, 

School-master, 



FEMININE. 

A bridemaid, 

A she-goat. 

A she-bear. 

A landlady. 

A female child. 

Female descendants. 

Female relations. 

Maid-servant. 

Mermaid. 

School-girl. 

School-mistress. 



30. Obs. Some nouns have no corresponding 
masculine gender ; as, amazon, brunette, dowager, 
shrew, filly, damsel, maid, maiden, virgin, vixen. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

31. Obs. Some nouns have no corresponding femi- 
nine gender ; as, pastor, captain, general, knight. 

32. Rem. — In the English language, or or er is a frequent mas- 
culine termination. The favorite feminine termination is ess. — See 
Barnard's Gram., pp. 85, 86. 

Exercise 13. 

What is the feminine of the nouns : — Beau, bridegroom, brother, 
drake, father, friar or monk, husband, man, papa, sir, adulator, 
administrator, author, benefactor, caterer, conductor, dauphin, 
director, editor, executor, hero, mayor, minister, traitor, landlord. 

Write the masculine of the nouns : — Maid, girl, doe, goose, 
lady, roe, queen, lass, mistress, miss, niece, ma, ewe, songstress, 
daughter, nymph, aunt, witch, abbess, actress, auditress, barberess, 
creatress, deaconess, doctress, donna, hermitess, hostess, idolatress, 
Jewess, rectrix, mermaid. 

What is the gender of the nouns : — Electress, embassador, em- 
press, emulator, enchantress, creator, demon, duke, eagless, giant, 
god, governor, heir, huntress, inventor, instructress, lion, princess, 
prophetess, saintess, seamster, sultana, tigress, tutor, widow, doc- 
tor, witch, lass. 

Correct the errors in gender in the following examples ; 
also name every part of speech as each sentence may be 
read : — 

Exercise 14. 

1. General Taylor was a heroine. 2. She is the heir of all my 
estate. Mary is a good hunter and a fine songster. 4. Our 
mother is the administrator. 5. John is a great belle. 6. Victoria 
is a noble king. 7. Emma was a noted beau. 8. Bufus was a 
witch. 9. Your daughter is an excellent instructor. 10. Arnold 
was a traitoress. 11. He was the bridemaid. 12. Brooks will 
be a great tailoress. Mr. Perry is an accommodating hostess. 

14. The emperor was a most distinguished patroness of letters. 

15. Richardson is a poetess. 

Q. What Gender would you give such nouns as friend, Henry, etc. ? 

33. A. The gender of words equally applicable to 
both sexes, as friend, enemy, parent, cousin, kitten, 
etc., should be omitted, unless the sex can be deter- 
mined by what goes before, or comes after ; if 



NUMBER. 31 

enemy refers to a man, it is of the masculine gender ; 
but, if it refers to a woman, it should be called 
feminine gender. 

Q. To what kind of nouns should gender be applied ? 

34. A. G-ender should be applied to the names of 
such beings only as have their sex known ; not 
knowing the sex, the gender cannot be determined : 
we cannot impart to others information which we 
have not ourselves. 

Q. Should gender be applied to the names of inanimate things ; as, 
book, house, tree, etc. ? 

35. A. Gender should not be applied to the names 
of things destitute of sex. Webster says, " Gender 
means sex," consequently, where there is no sex, 
there can be no gender. As gender is to the name 
of an animal, what sex is to the animal itself, in the 
absence of sex, there can be no advantage, propriety, 
or consistency in the application of gender. 

Q. Why not call book, house, tree, etc., neuter gender? 

36. A. Neuter gender means no gender, then to 
apply neuter gender is to give no gender — rather a 
poor gift. 

Give the gender of the nouns in 

Exercise 15. 

Teacher, priestess, mayor, assistant, pen, friend, neighbor, syren, 
pupil, pencil, pastor, mother, mermaid, inheritress, accomplice, 
mayoress, cousin, virago, baker, brewer, laundress, sparrow, uncle, 
dove, hat 

NUMBER. 

Q. What is Number ? 

37. A. Number, in grammar, is a distinction in 
words with reference to one or more than one ; as, 
" book, books ;" " John learns ;" " the boys learn ;" 
"tieii;* "they are." 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. How many numbers have words, and what are they ? 

3S. A* Words have two numbers — Singular and 
Plural. 

Q. What is the Sigular Number ? 

39. A. The singular number refers to one, or but 
to one collection of individuals ; as, girl, nation, 
army, I am. 

Q. What is the Plural Number ? 

40. A. The plural number refers to more than 
one ; as, girls, boys. 

41. Obs. The plural of nouns is generally formed 
by adding s or es to the singular ; as, house, houses ; 
tree, trees ; fox, foxes ; glass, glasses, etc. 

42. Obs. Nouns ending in z, x, s, ss, sh, and ch 
(soft), form the plural by adding es to the singular ; 
as, adz, adzes; box, boxes; gas, gases; kiss, kisses; 
wish, wishes ; church, churches. 

43. Rem. — Nouns ending in ch (sounded) hard like Jc, form the 
plural by adding s ; as, monarch, monarchs. 

44. Obs. Nouns ending in y not immediately pre- 
ceded by a vowel a, e, i, o, or u, change y into ie, 
and add s; as, sky, skies; fly, flies ; army, armies, 
etc. 

45. Rem. — Formerly fly, sky, army, etc. ended in ie, hence the 
plural of such words is formed by changing y into the original termi- 
nation ie, and adding s. 

46. Rem. — Nouns ending in y immediately preceded by a vowel 
form the plural regularly by adding s ; as, joy, joys, valley, valleys. 

47. Rem. — Some names of persons ending in y form the plural 
by adding 5 ; as, Henry, Henrys ; Mary, Marys. Other names 
follow the previous obs. ; as, Sicily, Sicilies ; Ptolemy, Ptole- 
mies. 

Exc. — " Soliloquy, colloquy, and alloquy make soliloquies, collo- 
quies, and alloquies." — A. Hart, p. 32. 

48. Obs. The following nouns form the plural 
irregularly ; as, 



NUMBER. 33 

SING. NO. PLU. NO. SING. NO. PLU. NO. 

BrntW (Brothers, Man, Men, 

-tfrotner, \ Brethren. Mouse, Mice. 

Child, Children. Ox, Oxen. 

Die (small cubes ? D - Penny (in calcu- > p 

for gaming), $ lation), $ 

Die (stamps for ) m Penny (distinct \ Pennies 

coining), $ ' coins), $ 

Foot, Feet. Tooth, Teeth. 

Goose, Geese. Woman, Women. 

Louse, Lice. 

Write the plural of the nouns in 

Exercise 16. 

Horse, bird, buzz, tax, fungus, loss, lath, branch, patriarch, duty, 
beauty, valley, chimney, lady, key, brother, foot, man, lot, lung, 
phiz, lynx, lens, distress, brush, catch, compress, folly, cry, joy, day, 
city, delays, child, mouse, ox, tooth. 

49. Hem. — Some nouns are used only in the singular, as the 
names of places, metals, things measured or weighed, and the 
quality of things ; as, Boston, gold, wheat, sugar, coffee, pride, 
modesty, etc. 

50. Rem. — Some nouns assume the plural form to signify different 
sorts of things, rather than an increase of numbers ; as, wines, teas, 
drugs, medicines, wares, boys, griefs, grasses, cottons. 

51. Rem. — Some nouns are used only in the plural ; as, annals, 
archives, ashes, betters, billiards, bitters, breeches, bowels, cloths, 
clothes, calends, drawers, downs, dregs, drugs, embers, entrails, 
feelings, filings, goods, hatches, ides, bees, letters (literature), 
literati, matins, mallows, manners, measles, morals, mumps, nippers, 
orgies, pincers, pleiads, riches, snuffers, shears, scissors, shambles, 
statistics, tidings, tongs, thanks, vespers, victuals, vitals. 

52. Rem.— Manners in the sense of behavior, and letters in the 
sense' of literature, are used only in the plural. 

Rule 1. 

Nouns denoting but one should have the singular 
form ; more than one, the plural form. 

Model 1. 
" The child weighs thirty pound." Say, the child 
weighs thirty pounds. — R. 1. "Johnson is six foot 
high." Say, Johnson is six feet high. — R. 1. 
2* 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Correct the errors in 

Exercise 17. 

1. Salem is distant about twenty-five mile. 2. The well is fifty 
foot deep. 3. I have bought eight load of wood. 4. My neighbor 
killed an oxen yesterday. 5. Did not our heart burn within us as 
we walked. 6. We rode about ten miles an hour. 7. Three 
pound of gold went to one shield. — Kings, X, 17. 8. A scrap 
quilt has all kind of pieces. 9. There are many sort of shoes. 

53. Rem. — Correct sentences are occasionally interspersed 
throughout the false grammar, to test the ingenuity of the pupil. 



PERSON. 
Q. What is Person ? 

54. A. Person is a distinction in reference to the 
speaker, hearer, and what is spoken of or about. 

55. Rem, — Person — by a figure of speech, personification — is ap- 
plicable to the lower animals and inanimate things, as well as to 
intelligent beings. 

Q. How many Persons have words — and what are they ? 

56. A. Words have three persons — first, second, 
and third. 

Q. What is the first person ? 

57. A. The first person refers to the speaker or 
writer; as, "I William demand it." 

Q. What is the second person ? 

58. A. The second person refers to the one spoken 
to, or addressed ; as, " William, you must mind your 
lesson." 

Q. What is the third person ? 

59. A. The third person refers to what is spoken 
of or about ; as, " William studies, and he will there- 
fore excel." 

60. Rem. — Some writers, in speaking of themselves, use the third 
person. — See Moses, Caesar, etc. 



PERSON GENDER OF PRONOUNS. 35 

Mention the persons, also the genders and numbers of 
the nouns, in 

Exercise 18. 
L I John will attend to it. 2. James, mind your studies. 3. 
Mary has returned. 4. Joseph, Susan saw the girls at church. 5. 
Martha, Elizabeth is sick. 6. Jane, close the door. 7. Eufus, 
Thomas is in the garden. 8. I Paul have written it. 9. Kobert, 
who did this ? 10. We Athenians are in fault. 11. You Eroso- 
phics deserve much praise. 12. Come, gentle Spring, ethereal 
mildness, come. 

Note 13 — Person. 

" Nouns have two persons, the second and third. When a 
man speaks, the pronoun I or we is always used ; therefore, nouns 
can never be in the first person. In examples like the following, 
some philologists suppose the noun to be in the first person :— " This 
may certify, that I, Jonas Taylor, do hereby give and grant," etc. 
But it is evident, that the speaker or writer, in introducing his own 
name, speaks of himself ; consequently the noun is of the third per- 
son. If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober 
thought is requisite ; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be re- 
moved." — Kirkham's Gram., pp. 37, 38. 

Suppose we exercise a little sober thought, and ask Mr. Kirk- 
ham a few questions, that all difficulties may be removed. What 
person is Jonas Taylor in the sentence just quoted ? " Third per- 
son." For what does I stand, in the same sentence ? " Jonas 
Taylor." What person is I ? " First person." With what 
does I, the first person, agree in person, if Jonas Taylor is third 
person ? Can a pronoun of the first person agree with a noun of 
the third person ? How many persons have nouns ? " Nouns 
have but two persons, the second and third." How many persons 
have pronouns ? " Pronouns have three persons." How can pro- 
nouns having three persons agree with nouns having only two 1 

Two words evidently cannot agree in any property not possessed 
by both. What is a pronoun ? "A pronoun is a word used in- 
stead of a noun." — Kirkham, p. 95. If a pronoun represents a 
noun, it can have no property not common with the noun. Can 
the pronoun receive from the noun what the noun has not ? " The 
deponent answereth not." 

As pronouns are but the representatives of nouns, it must be 
perfectly ridiculous to ascribe to pronouns properties not possessed 
by nouns themselves ; consequently, if pronouns have a first person, 
nouns must have a first person also. 

GENDER OF PRONOUNS. 
Q. How may the Gender of pronouns be known 7 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

61. A. Pronouns agree with their nouns in gen- 
der ; as, "Joseph is diligent, and he will improve ;" 
" Mary studies well, and she generally obtains the 
prize ;" " The man who seeks wisdom will certainly 
find it;" " Rufus caught the bird ; but it soon escaped 
him." 

Point out the nouns and pronouns, also show their 
agreement in gender, in 

Exercise 19. 

1. John is diligent, and he will improve. 2. The girl studies 
closely, therefore she will improve rapidly. 3. Henry said, " Mary, 
I will assist you, if you will accompany me." 4. The girl whom 
I instruct learns well. 5. He that does right will be rewarded. 
6. The girl that acts wisely deserves praise. 7. Henrietta said to 
Rufus, "I will yet love you, though you forsake me." 8. The 
girls remarked, " we excel the boys in singing, though they surpass 
us in dancing." 9. The boys say, " we obey our mothers as they 
commanded us." 10. He caught the bird ; but it soon escaped. 
11. I have seen the man that lives in the cave. 12. The man who 
is wise talks little. 

NUMBER OF PRONOUNS. 

Q. How may the Number of pronouns be known ? 

62. A. Pronouns agree with their nouns in num- 
ber ; as, "The woman who assists me shall be re- 
warded ;" "The men who are here will understand 
it ;" " The child that we saw perished ;" " Those 
boys that we met were truants." 

> Select the nouns and pronouns, also show their agree- 
ment in number, in 

Exercise 20. 

1. Washington was a great general, he established our independ- 
ence. 2. Bad boys do mischief, they disobey the authorities. 3. 
Cynthia is a fine girl, she studies assiduously. 4. The girl whom 
I saw perished. 5. Men who are virtuous live happily. 6. The 
girls study hard, and they will excel. 7. Henry said to John, " I 
will work, if you will help me." 8. The girls said to the boys, " we 
will assist you, if our parents will permit us." 9. The house which 
stands on the street belongs to me. 10. The horses which were 
imported are superior. 11. She is the same woman that we met 



PERSON OF PRONOUNS. 37 

yesterday. 12. The books that he had are ruined. 13. Each lung 
completely fills the cavity in' which it is placed. — Wistar. 



PERSON OF PRONOUNS. 

Q. How may the Person of pronouns be known ? 

64. A. Pronouns agree with their nouns in per- 
son ; as, " He is a friend who is faithful in adversity ;" 
" Charles, thou art a scholar indeed ;" " I Jones, 
who instruct you, labor faithfully." 

Select the nouns and pronouns , also show their agree- 
ment in person, in 

Exercise 21. 

1. I, who speak from experience, take pleasure in guarding my 
friends against danger. 2. You, who have been a witness, can 
testify. 3. This is the man who was 'my friend. 4. It was not I 
that shut it. 5. You that feed the poor shall be rewarded. 6. 
This is the same girl that we saw before. 7. The bird which sung 
so sweetly has flown. 8. My neighbor requested me to visit her. 
9. Young ladies, you run over the recitation very carelessly. 10. 
I wish to know what you can tell me about him. 11. Sir, I 
charge thee, fling away ambition. 12. We are apt to love those 
who love us. 

Eule 2. 

Who stands for intelligent persons, superior be- 
ings, and animals or things spoken of as persons. 

Model 2. 

" The man is prudent which speaks little." Say, 
The man is prudent who speaks little. — E. 2. " Our 
Father which art in heaven." Say, Our Father who 
art in heaven. — E. 2. "Fair Hope, which points 
to distant years." Say, Fair Hope, who points to dis- 
tant years. — R. 2. " The old crab which advised the 
young one." Say, The old crab who advised the 
young one. — E. 2. Hope and Crab, in the preceding 
examples, are personified. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Correct the errors in 

Exercise 22. 

1. There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard* 
2. The person which waited on us yesterday is my friend. 3« 
The messenger which brought me the letter has returned. 4. The 
member which spoke last made a noble effort. 5. The boys, who 
learn their lessons so well, please their teacher. 6. He which shuns 
vice does generally practice virtue. 7. He had a comely young 
woman, which traveled with him. — Hutchinson's Hist., 1, 29. 8. 
A butterfly, which thought himself an accomplished traveler, hap- 
pened to light upon a bee-hive. — Just., p. 143. 

Rule 3. 

That and which stand for children, the lower ani- 
mals, and things not spoken of as persons. 

Model 3. 

" The child whom I met was afterwards 
drowned." Say, The child that I met was after- 
wards drowned. — R. 3. u The dog who was chained 
to the door has escaped." Say, The dog that or which, 
etc. — R. 3. . " The author whom he studied has not 
improved his morals." — Q-allaudet. Say, The au- 
thor which, etc. — R. 3. Author, here, is the book, 
not the writer. 

Correct the errors in 

Exercise 23. 

1. The babe who was in the cradle appeared to be healthy. 2. 
The horse, whom my father imported, is dead. 3. The bird, which 
I killed, had made her nest. 4. The sun, who shines so bright, 
gives light and life. 5. An only child is one who has neither bro- 
ther nor sister. 6. What was that creature whom Job called 
leviathan ? 7. Those are the birds whom we call gregarious. 

DESCRIPTIVES— Degrees op Comparison. 
Q. How many Degrees of Comparison have descriptives ? 

65. A. Descriptives, susceptible of comparison, 
usually have three degrees assigned : Positive, Com- 
parative, and Superlative. 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 39 

Q. What is the Positive degree ? 

66. A. The Positive degree describes what is 
mentioned, and implies a comparison with others of 
the same kind or class ; as, " John is mild." 

Q. What is the Comparative degree ? 

67. A. The Comparative degree compares an in- 
dividual or class with another individual or class, 
showing that the one described possesses more or 
less of the quality than the other or others alluded to ; 
as, " William is milder than Henry ;" " He is wiser 
than his teacher or teachers." 

Q. What is the Superlative degree ? 

68. A. The Superlative degree compares an indi- 
vidual or class with two or more individuals or classes 
of the same kind or nature, showing that the one 
described possesses a higher or lower degree of the 
quality than any other alluded to ; as, " Martha is 
the mildest girl in the school." 

Note 14 — Degrees of Comparison — (See R. 0. Smith's Gram., 
p. 51). 

" The positive degree simply describes an object ; as, John is 
good." Good evidently describes John ; but is that all that good 
does ? Does it not clearly set forth the idea that all boys are not 
good ? Does it not signify that John is better than some others, and 
thus imply a comparison ? Then how can it be said, that the posi- 
tive degree simply describes an object, when it evidently does more ? 
" Simply means merely or solely." — Webster's Die. 

" The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in mean- 
ing ; as, " William is better than John." " It implies a comparison 
between two." Does it not clearly express a comparison ? " In- 
creases or lessens the positive in meaning," in what manner does it do 
this ? If you should say, " John is a good boy," and some one should 
add that "William is a better boy than John," does this make John 
any more or less good ? How can the quality of goodness be increas- 
ed or lessened in John, though another should be ever so good, or so 
bad? The Comparative does not by any means denote any in- 
crease or diminution of quality, but simply that what is described 
by the comparative possesses more or less of the quality than that 
which is described by the Positive. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the 
highest or lowest degree ;" as, " Thomas is the best ;" " Walter is 
the worst." " It implies a comparison between three or more." " It 
implies," etc. Does it not plainly express a, comparison ? 

When it is said to me ; that " Thomas is the best boy in school," 
I can readily comprehend that Thomas, the boy described by the 
use of the superlative degree best, possesses the highest degree of 
goodness ; but how does this expression increase or lessen the qua- 
lity of goodness, as possessed by the other boys described in the 
positive degree ? All the boys may be good, yet Thomas may be 
the best. How can that have any tendency to make the others 
worse ? 

The Superlative does not increase or lessen the positive to the 
highest or lowest degree, as stated by Smith and others ; but it 
denotes that the one described possesses a higher or lower degree 
of the quality than any other alluded to. 

How can a condition, said to be positive, be increased or lessened 
to the highest or lowest degree, by other conditions merely rela- 
tive? 

If the comparative and superlative degrees increase or lessen the 
first degree, why call it positive ? 

Positive means absolute, express, not admitting any condition or 
discretion. — (See Webster's Die. Unabridged.) Do the words posi- 
tive and absolute express or convey the idea of condition increased 
or lessened to the highest or lowest degree ? If so, I have consult- 
ed Webster and other authors to but little purpose. I can see 
no reason for calling the first degree positive, if it is constantly in- 
creased or diminished. 

It is morally wrong, as well as grammatically absurd, to think 
that one cannot be elevated without degrading another. 



FORMATION OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

Q. How is the Comparative degree formed ? 

69. A. The Comparative degree is formed by add- 
ing r or er to the Positive of one syllable ; as, Pos. 
wise, Com. wiser ; Pos. mild, Com. milder. 

Q. How is the Superlative degree formed ? 

70. A. The Superlative degree is formed by add- 
ing st or est to the Positive of one syllable ; as, Pos. 
wise, Com. wiser. Sup. wisest ; Pos. mild, Com. 
milder, Sup. mildest. 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 



41 



71. Rem. — Descriptives ending in e add r and st, but those 
ending with & consonant add er and est, to form the degrees. 





Exercise 24. 




positive (degree). 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


White, 


whiter, 


whitest. 


Wide, 


wider, 


widest. 


Great, 


greater, 


greatest. 


Hard, 


harder, 


hardest. 


Base, 


baser, 


basest. 


High, 


higher, 


highest. 


Compare 







Brave, grave, tall, new, fine, long. 

72. Rem. — Descriptives of one syllable ending in d, g, n, or t 
preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant, and add er 
and est ; as, red, redder, reddest ; hot, hotter, hottest ; thin, thin- 
ner, thinnest. 

73. Rem. — Descriptives of two syllables ending in w, y, or mute 
e, also those accented on the last syllable, add r or er, st or est, to 
form the degrees of comparison ; as, yellow, yellower, yellowest ; 
coy, coyer, coyest ; able, abler, ablest ; discreet, discreeter, dis- 
creetest. 

74. Rem. — Descriptives of one or two syllables ending in y pre- 
ceded by a consonant change y into i in forming the degrees ; as, 
dry, drier, driest ; funny, funnier, funniest ; but y preceded by a 
vowel should not be changed ; as, gay, gayer, gayest. 

75. Rem. — A few descriptives of two syllables ending in er, 
some, t, etc., form their comparison by adding r or er, st or est ; as, 
tender, tenderer, tenderest. 

76. Obs. Most Descriptives, and especially those 
of two or more syllables, may form the other degrees 
by the help of more or less, most or least ; as, Pos. 
beautiful, Com. more beautiful, Sup. most beauti- 
ful ; or, Pos. beautiful, Com. less beautiful, Sup. least 
beautiful. 

Comparison by the help of more and most, less and 
least : 





Exercise 25. 




POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


Dutiful, 


more dutiful, 


most dutiful, 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

POSITIVE, COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

Dutiful, less dutiful, least dutiful. 

Foolish, more foolish, most foolish. 

Foolish, less foolish, least foolish. 

Benevolent, more benevolent, most benevolent, 
Suitable, " suitable, " suitable. 

Distrustful, " distrustful, " distrustful. 

Compare the following, first by the use of more and most, 
then by the help of less and least : 

Convenient, industrious, obedient, docile, dilatory. 

Q. How are Descriptives distinguished in reference to comparison ? 

77. A. Descriptives forming their degrees by the 
addition of r or er, st or est, or by the use of the help- 
ing descriptives more or less, most or least, are called 
Regular ; those forming their degrees differently 
are denominated Irregular ; those insusceptible of 
comparison, Defectives. 

78. Rem. — The termination ish gives a slight degree of compa- 
rison ; as, salt, saltish ; white, whitish. 

Compare the following descriptives according to the 
observations and remarks laid down : 

Exercise 26. 

Short, sweet, grave, brave, narrow, lofty, noble, polite, ugly, 
profound, happy, holy, idle, minute, handsome, large, warm, sub- 
lime, severe, pleasant, studious, intelligent. 

PRINCIPAL AND HELPING DESCRIPTIVES. 

Q. How may principal and helping descriptives be distinguished ? 

79. A. A principal descriptive is the chief word 
used in description, and will make sense without a 
helping descriptive; as, "Mary is a very beautiful 
girl," beautiful is the principal descriptive, and will 
make sense without the helping descriptive very ; as, 
" Mary is a beautiful girl." 

Q. How may a helping descriptive be known ? 

80. A. A helping descriptive assists in forming the 
degrees of comparison, or, through the principal, 



PRINCIPAL AND HELPING DESCRIPTIVES. 43 

qualifies the noun, but cannot make sense, except 
when used in connection with a principal descrip- 
tive ; as, " Beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful 
girl ;" " Mary is a very beautiful girl." 

81. Rem. — In the preceding" sentences, more, most, and very are 
helping descriptives. Beautiful is the principal descriptive, to drop 
which would destroy the sense ; as, to say, " Mary is a very girl," 
makes no sense. 

82. Rem. — A principal descriptive used to modify another de- 
scriptive becomes a helping descriptive ; as, "A beautiful blue 
color," beautiful helps blue describe color. " A fine satin vest," 
fine helps satin describe vest. " A deep red tinge," deep helps red 
describe tinge. 

83. Rem. — Adverbs, when used to help descriptives qualify 
nouns, become helping descriptives ; as, " A truly good man wor- 
ships God," truly, helping good describe man, becomes a helping 
descriptive. " A most remarkable man came here yesterday," as 
most helps remarkable describe man, most is consequently a helping 
descriptive. " He is rather black," rather is also a helping de- 
scriptive, as it helps black describe the person spoken of. 

84. Rem. — Nouns and definitives, used in connection with de- 
scriptives to qualify nouns, become helping descriptives ; as, " The 
wall is three feet high" here, three and feet help high describe 
wall, and should therefore be called helping descriptives. " His 
son is eight years old," eight and years help old describe son. 
"The river is a mile wide" a and mile help the principal de- 
scriptive wide describe river, and are likewise called helping de- 
scriptives. 

85. Rem. — Descriptives frequently have two, sometimes three or 
more, helping descriptives ; as, " Matilda is rather too poor," poor 
has the two helping descriptives rather and too. " The merchant 
has very remarkably deep blue cloth," here, the principal descrip- 
tive blue has three helping descriptives very, remarkably, and deep. 

The student may point out the helping and principal 
descriptives, also give the degrees of comparison, in 

Exercise 27. 

1. That was a very pernicious war. 2. That knife is too little. 
3. She bought pale red lining ; but I bought deep blue silk. 4. 
The girls have been more cautious in their remarks. 5. The wall 
is seven feet high. 6. The orator was less offensive in his remarks 
today. 7. Miss Ann is a most amiable girl. 8. Susan is so beau- 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tiful. 9. That young man has been stark mad. 10. He threw a 
red-hot ball into the magazine. 11. The child is somewhat sick. 
12. The young ladies have been singularly prudish. 13. The mer- 
chants have been sufficiently cautious. 14. He has very remark- 
ably deep black gloves. 15. How sublimely great and glorious 
are the attributes of God. 16. Money, like everything else, is 
more or less valuable as it is less or more plentiful. — Beattie's 
Moral Science, p. 378. 17. Thomas is wiser than his brothers. 
18. Good scholars secure the highest approbation of their teacher. 

Kule 4. 

Definitives point out or limit nouns. 

Model 4. 

"John, water them colts." Say, John, water those 
colts. — R. 4. 

86. Rem. — You should never say them boys, them girls, them 
books, etc., but those boys, those girls, those books. Pronouns, 
standing for or in the place of nouns, obviously cannot be correctly 
used to point out nouns ; therefore, such a thing as an adjective 
pronoun is utterly impossible, 

PASSING. 

" John, water those colts." (1) Those is a defini- 
tive, (2) points out colts, (3) — R. 4. " Ten men 
were present." (1) Ten is a definitive, (2) limits 
men, (3)— R. 4. 

Correct the errors, and parse the definitives, in 

Exercise 28. 

1. Doctor, hand me them papers. 2. John, did you get them 
books? 3. Do you see them boys, girls? 4. I wish you to see 
them colts to-day. 5. Which of them two boys has most distin- 
guished himself. 6. Emma, hand me them appies. 

Rule 5. 
A is used before a consonant sound; but an, before 
a vowel sound. 

Model 5. 

" Noah built a ark." Say, Noah built an ark. A 
should be an, being used before the vowel sound of a 



PRINCIPAL AND HELPING DESCRIPTIVES. 45 

in ark. — R. 5. "An watch." Say, a watch, as watch 
commences with the consonant sound of w. — R. 5. 
Correct the errors, and parse some of the definitives, in 
Exercise 29. 

1. He went into an house. 2. That machine is truly an won- 
derful invention. 3. Brown is an younger man than we supposed. 
4. The general commands a army. 5. A enemy approaches. 6. 
James procured a ink-stand for his sister. 1. Eight drams make a 
ounce. 8. The host gave me a upper room. 9. Thomas lost a 
horse yesterday. 10. A hospital is an asylum for the sick. 11. A 
adder. 12. An end. 13. A ingenious device. 14. An ox. 15. 
A umpire. 

Note 15 — The uses of A and AN. 

" A becomes an before a vowel, and before a silent h." — Mur- 
ray, p. 32. — R. C. Smith, p. 49, (355). "A becomes an before a 
vowel or silent h" — Bailey, p. 24. 

The fact is directly the reverse of what is stated by these authors. 
A does not become an before a vowel ; an, being the original word, 
elides the n for the sake of euphony. Ane and an are the Saxon 
forms of this word, so n is not added to a to form an ; but it is 
dropped from an to make a. 

The uses of a and an do not necessarily, as stated by these authors, 
depend on the next letter, but on the next sound, a being used to 
prevent the recurrence of two consonant sounds ; and an, to prevent 
the disagreeable hiatus, which would be produced by two vowel 
sounds coming together. 

An is used before a silent h, not because the h is silent ; but be- 
cause the next sound is that of a vowel ; as, " an hour ; an humble 
heart." — See Rule 5. A is used before a consonant sound ; but 
an, before a vowel sound. 

Omitting to add sound after vowel, which we add, they have 
failed to set forth the principle of the rule, not observing that he 
that is ignorant of the principle must be ignorant of the rule. 
By omitting this qualification, they also unnecessarily encumber 
and clog the rule with numerous exceptions — thus incurring gratuit- 
ous embarrassment. 

1st. All words commencing with u long, of which there are 
many, are exceptions to their instructions ; as, unit, use, union, 
unicorn, universal, etc. A union, a uniform course, etc., though 
exceptions to their rules, are correct expressions. A is used be- 
fore union and uniform, not because these words commence 
with long u; but because the u combines with its sound the 
power of the initial y, a consonant. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2d. A eulogy, a eunuch, a euphony, a ewe, a ewer, etc., are cor- 
rect expressions, though a is used before the vowel e, yet there is 
no provision for this usage laid down by any of the authors re- 
ferred to. A is used before these words, though they commence 
with the vowel e, because the pronunciation of such words is dis- 
tinctly commenced with the initial sound of the consonant y. 

3d. A, and not an, is used before the word one, notwithstand- 
ing one commences with the vowel o ; because in pronouncing one f 
by the help of the initial consonant w, we sound it as if written 
wun, consequently, say, a one, not an one. 

Kirkham, p. 68 — Note to Rule 1, says, "An is used before 
a vowel or silent h, and a before a consonant or u long, and also 
before the word one' 1 Here, what is said in the first line is con- 
tradicted by what is said in the second ; for, if an is used before a 
vowel, an should be used before u long, u long or short being a 
vowel ; but this is an exception to the first line. 

Again, if an is used before a vowel, an should be used before 
one; for one commences with the vowel o — another exception. 
If a is necessarily to be used before a consonant, here silent h is 
another exception, so what is said in one line is a complete set off 
to what is said in the other. 

Note 16 — Possessive Case. 

The words italicized in the following examples are usually de- 
nominated nouns in the possessive case : 

1. Brewer's yeast is better than baker's yeast. 

2. Comstock keeps men's hats, boy's caps, and children's shoes 
for sale. 

3. I have a box of Jaynes's pills, or a box of Jaynes's pills be- 
longs to me. 

4. Baker's bread is not so cheap as domestic bread. 

5. John has a senator's knife. 

6. One of Rodger s's knives belongs to me. 

7. Emma possesses Murray's grammar. 

8. The scholar's duty. 

What is the possessive case ? " The possessive case denotes the 
possessor of some thing?" — Kirkham, p. 48. Do the italicized 
words above denote possessors? Do the words Brewer's and 
Baker's denote possessors, or are they used to distinguish different 
kinds of yeast ? Do the hats, caps, and shoes just mentioned be- 
long to men, boys, and children, or is Comstock the possessor ? 
Are these words nouns ? Are they the names of things, or are 
they used to point out the names of different things in order to 
distinguish one article from another ? — Evidently the latter, 

" When I say, ' Peter's knife/ who owns or possesses the knife ?" 
In what case, then, is Peter's, and why ? " In the possessive case, 



POSSESSIVE CASE. 47 

because Peter possesses the knife."- — R C. Smith, p. 11. In what 
case is Jaynes's in the third example ? " In the possessive case 
of course, having the apostrophe and s like Peter's." Is Jaynes 
the possessor of the pills, or simply the maker of them ? " It 
seems he is only the .maker of them ; but our grammars put all 
words ending like Peter's in the possessive case any how." 

Who is really the owner of the pills ? " If you must have the 
plain truth, I in the first part, and me in the last part, of the 
sentence represent the possessor." And are I and me in the posses- 
sive case ? Do they represent the possessors ? " It is evidently true, 
I and me represent the possessors, and according to the definition, 
they are in the possessive case ; but our grammars, notwithstand- 
ing the definition, make I nominative, and me objective case : this 
kind of investigation seems to confound the cases." Try the fol- 
lowing sentences : " Peter is the owner of the knife ;" " A knife 
belongs to Peter." In both instances, Peter is unquestionably the 
possessor of the knife, yet Peter is not in the possessive case ; but 
first in the nominative, and next in the objective case. 

" Peter saw her with his knife." By many, perhaps most of 
the old theorists, his is classed with adjective words — adjective pro- 
nouns. If his is, in any sense of the word, an adjective, why may 
Peter's not be considered an adjective, also ? " Baker's bread is 
not so cheap as domestic bread." Does Baker's denote the pos- 
sessor of the bread, or does it simply distinguish a certain kind of 
bread from domestic bread ? Domestic is called an adjective, yet 
it is used, like Baker's, to distinguish the bread. If domestic is an 
adjective, why may Baker's not be an adjective, also ? So, this 
doctrine of the possessive case confounds the possessive cases of 
nouns and pronouns with adjectives. 

4< The possessive case denotes the possessor of something." " De- 
notes" means to indicate; "indicate," to point out. — Webster. 
Does the so-called possessive case ever point out the owner of any 
thing ? It may sometimes denote or point out what is possessed ; 
as, " Peter's knife ;" " Mary's book." Knife and book are here 
pointed out by means of the definitives Peter's and Mary's ; but 
the possessor is not, by any means, pointed out. 

The possessive case of names and substitutes, constitutes a class 
of definitives. In many of these, there is no ownership intended ; 
as, " Washington's monument ;" " Men's clothes f " Boys' hats." 
— Frazee, p. 106. 

" All words put before nouns to tell to whom they belong are 
adjectives." — Fowle, p. 17. 

'* Suppose I may have a glove. I ask, l What kind of a glove 
is this ?' It may be answered. A large glove. A small glove. 
A black glove. A white glove. A lady's glove. A gentleman's 
glove, etc. Large, small, black, white, lady's, gentleman's — all 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

these words are used in the same way, and answer, therefore, to the 
description of an adjective. But lady and gentleman are nouns ; 
for they are the names of objects. Still lady's and gentleman's are 
not the less adjectives ; for they are not names of objects." — Bar- 
nard, p. 71. 

" When a noun or pronoun assumes the possessive form, it loses 
its substantive character, and becomes a definitive. The following 
illustration will make this truth quite evident : 

" John purchased an Arabian horse, and William an Indian po- 
ny. But John's horse having been injured, John exchanged it for 
William's pony." Now, it is allowed that the word " Arabian," 
in the above example, is an adjective — it specifies " horse" as to its 
origin — a particular kind of horse. As truly is the word " John's" 
an adjective ; for, in this connection, it specifies " horse" as to its 
present condition — a particular horse. It should be remembered 
that the words " John" and " John's" differ quite as much, even in 
form, as do the words " Arabia" and " Arabian." But John is a 
noun — and so is Arabia ; because they are used only as names. 
" Arabian" is an adjective — and so is " John's ;" because, in the 
sentence above, they are each used to describe "horse." Each 
word has a substantive origin — each, with its change of form, has 
changed its office. 

" Note 2. — Nouns sometimes become adjectives without any 
change of form ; as, A gold pen ; an iron stove ; cedar posts." — 
Clark, p. 61. 

So, it is evident that the so-called possessive cases are neither 
nouns nor pronouns, but a species of adjectives, appropriately called 
definitives. 

Webster, speaking of whose, says, " It is better classed with ad- 
jectives, or attributes, like his." — Webster's Gram., p. 29. 

" But it must be observed, that although it and who are real sub- 
stitutes, they are never united to names, like attributes — it day, 
who man ; yet its and whose cannot be detached from a name ex- 
pressed or implied ; as its shape — its figure — whose face — whose 
works ; whose are they ? that is, whose works ? These (its and 
whose) are, therefore, real attributes." — Webster's Gram., p. 
27. 

Rule 6. 

Nouns, to denote ownership, origin, part, kind, 
duty, obligation, etc., generally become definitives 
by adding an apostrophe (') and s; as, " Mary's 
book;" "The parent's child;" "The mountain's 
top." [See Note 16 — Possessive case.] 



definitives, 49 

Model 6. 

" Homers works are much admired." Write, 
Homer's works are much admired. — R. 6. You ob- 
serve the apostrophe should be placed between the r 
and s in. the word Homers — thus, Homer s. 

PAUSING. 

" Homer's works are much admired." (1) Homer's 
is a definitive, (2) points out words, (3) — R. 4. 

87. Rem. — Plurals ending in s add only the apostrophe (') ; as, 
" Ladies' slippers;" " boys' caps," etc. 

88. Rem. — Pronouns becoming definitives do not take an apos- 
trophe ('), hence, to say, " Every tree is known by it's fruit," is 
wrong. Leave off the apostrophe in its. 

Correct the errors, by writing the words corrected in 
their proper forms, also parse a few oj the definitives, in 

Exercise 30. 

v l. Johns books are more valuable than Elizas. 2. William has 
a couple of Colts revolvers. 3. They soon ascended the mountains 
top. 4. They are wolves in sheeps' clothing. 5. Man's chief 
good is an upright mind. 6. Thy ancestor's virtue is not thine. 
7. I will not destroy the city for ten sake. 8. One mans loss is 
anothers gain. 9. A mothers tenderness and a father's care are 
natures gifts for man. 10. On eagles wings. 11. Which diction- 
ary do you prefer — Webster, Walker, or Johnson ? 

89. Rem. — Definitives often point out things understood, espe- 
cially when the meaning is obvious ; as, " He took refuge at the 
Governor's," that is, at the Governor's house ; " Let us go to St. 
Paul's (Church) ;" u Nor think a lover's are but fancied woes." — 
Cowper. " For many be called, but few chosen." — Matt., xx, 16. 

90. Rem, — Definitives pointing out nouns understood may take 
the apostrophe (') and s to denote what would be expressed by the 
presence and conversion of the noun ; as, " I will not do it for ten's 
sake," i. e., for ten men's sake. 

91. Rem. — When the apostrophic s would occasion a disagree- 
able hissing, it is frequently omitted, especially in poetry, the apos- 
trophe (') only being retained ; as, " The wrath of Peleus' son ;" 
but the omission of the apostrophic s should be very sparingly 
indulged in prose. 

3 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Promiscuous examples involving the preceding six 
rules. 

EXEECISE 31. 

1. Idleness and ignorance are the parent of many vices. 2. One 
of his brothers, with which I am acquainted, was present. 3. The 
child whom we saw is wholesomely fed. 4. I have received them 
books which you sent me. 5. A enemy approaches. 6. I endure 
all things for the elects sake. 7. He reads neither the Old nor 
the New Testaments. 8. The man which I saw is your friend. 9. 
The infant, whom you see, is called Henry. 10. She was cross- 
examined by them lawyers. 11. With the talents of a angel a 
man may become a fool. 12. He spoke unfavorably of Popes 
Homer. 

TENSE. 
Q. What is Tense? 

92. A. Tense is the time of an action. 

Q. What are the divisions of time in reference to action ? 

93. A. The most natural and obvious divisions of 
time, in reference to action, are into Present, Past, and 
Futtire tenses. [See Note 17 — Names of the Tenses.] 

Q. What is the Present tense ? 

94. A. The Present tense expresses an action 
which is, or has been, going on during any period of 
time embracing the present moment ; as, " She 
reads ;" " John has written to-day." — [See Note 21 
— Criticisms on the Perfect tense.] 

Q. What is the Past tense ? 

95. A. The Past tense expresses an action as 
simply past, or as having taken place in some past 
period ; as, " Mary read well ;" " James wrote a let- 
ter yesterday." 

Q What is the Future tense ? 

96. A. The Future tense expresses an action to 
take place after the present moment ; as, " I shall 
write ;" " He may go next week ;" " It might rain 
before night." — [See Note 18 — Remarks on tense, 
by N. Webster. Note 19 — The Present tense.] 



TENSE. 51 

Note 17 — Names op the Tenses. 

Some grammar authors have numbered 72 tenses ; others, 36, 
26, 24, 18, 12, 6, 3, or 2. Most of the Murray school enumerate 
six ; viz., the Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, First and 
Second Future tenses. 

G. Brown, in his Grammar of Grammars, p. 326, ob. 1, speaking 
of these terms says, " though some of them are not so strictly 
appropriate as scientific names ought to be, it is thought inex- 
pedient to change them." 

Why is it inexpedient to change them ? Seeing that " some of 
them are not so strictly appropriate as scientific names ought to 
be." Why not use mames in the science of grammar as strictly 
appropriate as the names in any other science ? Webster, in the 
preface to his grammar, says, " the terms used to express the tenses 
of English verbs, are borrowed from the Latin ; but some of them 
are improperly applied. " If an act is now going on ; as, " I write," 
I say that write is Present tense. If the act took place in some 
past time ; as, " I wrote yesterday," I say that wrote is in the 
Past tense ; but if the act is to take place hereafter ; as, " I will 
write next week," I call " will write" Future tense. Are the terms 
present, past, and future, not properly applied ? Are they not as 
strictly appropriate as the names in any other science ? 

If so, why is the change made, inexpedient ? Similar changes, 
made in chemistry and other sciences, have been universally 
acknowledged to be improvements. Webster, in the same pre- 
face, says, " Thus, he Created is called the Imperfect tense, de- 
noting unfinished action ; but this is not correct." " God created 
man in his own image." Created does not denote unfinished, but 
finished, action, directly opposite of what is taught by more than 
three hundred authors ; and many, many, thousand teachers in 
America and England. To their doctrine, I must demur. I am 
not so tractable as to be led without seeing. 

" Numbers are no mark that men may right he found." 

I have presumed to call the verb created, Past tense, it appears 
to me, that this term is sufficiently simple, and unquestionably ap- 
propriate ; therefore, the change cannot be inexpedient, if truth 
is preferable to error. 

Murray, qualifying the use of the imperfect tense, says, " the 
Imperfect denotes the thing 1 or action past, in such a manner, that 
nothing remains of that time in which it was done." — Murray, 
p. 58. You observe both the time and the action are complete — 
perfect. If so, where is the propriety in calling this tense, which is 
perfect in every respect, imperfect ? Words are the vehicles of 
thought. What idea does this imperfect vehicle convey ? Prof. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Barnard remarks : " Of the past tenses, the first is, " I wrote" 
this plainly denotes that the action of writing has been accom- 
plished. It conveys no idea of incompleteness or imperfection. It 
is, nevertheless, commonly called by grammarians the Imperfect 
tense : for what reason, it is not easy to say." — Barnard's 
Grammar t p. 186. 

" I wrote a letter yesterday," wrote is said to be in the imper- 
fect tense, though, as you see, both the action and the time or the 
same are finished, past, perfected ; but, " / have been writing 
to-day" is called Perfect tense; yet, neither the action nor the 
time of the action is completed — it may be early in the morning, 
and the act be scarcely commenced ; but, strange to say, our gram- 
marians have thought proper to call such expressions Perfect 
tense, at least, they have so called them — as to thought, that may 
have been vacant. This is a palpable misnomer — a most glaring 
contradiction in terms, as much so as to call day, night ; black, 
white. 

Pluperfect tense. — Pluperfect, from the two Latin words, plus, 
more, and perfectus, perfect, means more than the perfect. More 
than the perfect ! 

How can anything be more than perfect? Strange things in 
grammar. "Some adjectives (descriptives), having in themselves 
a superlative signification, do not admit of comparison ; as, ex- 
treme, perfect," etc. — E. 0. Smith, p. 52. Here the student is 
taught that perfect cannot be compared — u to talk of a thing 
being more than perfect is absurd." Yet, when he comes to learn 
the names of the tenses, lo ! and behold 1 his teacher informs him 
of a pluperfect tense — a tense more than perfect ! Where does the 
absurdity rest? Striking consistency, indeed! Webster says, 
" The words pluperfect and pre terpluper feet, which signify more 
than finished, beyond more than finished, are very awkward 
terms." Yet Mr. G. Brown thinks the change inexpedient. There 
can be no improvement without a change. 

" Look around from Nature's range ; 
Nature's mighty law is — change." 

" The Pluperfect might be better distinguished as the past 
perfect." — Barnard's Gram., p. 188. The term past perfect is 
also used by Butler, Bullions, Wells, and a few others. 

The Second future. "The two houses will have finished their 
business, when the king comes to prorogue them." — Murray, 
p. 59. " Will have finished is called the second future, though 
it expresses what is to take place first ; and comes is here called 
first future, though comes obviously and expressly tells what is to 
happen after the business has been finished. Why call what is to 



TENSE. 53 

take place first, second? And why is the last to be called first ? 
First and second are ordinal numbers ; but is this the usual and 
accepted order, is not the order inverted ? Is it not grammar 
backwards ? 

Webster says : " The common names and distribution of the tenses, 
are so utterly incorrect and incompetent to give a just idea of 
their uses, that I have ventured to offer a new division, retaining 
the old names, as far as truth will warrant. * * * * Indeed, I see 
not how a foreigner can learn our language, as the tenses are 
commonly distributed and defined." — Webster's Gram., p. 52. 

" Several of the old names either convey no idea, or an errone- 
ous one. The imperfect tense does not, in one case of a hundred, 
signify an imperfect action ; the perfect tense is not the only one 
which represents a finished action ; and, if we speak of first and 
seeond future tenses, we may with equal propriety have first and 
second present, and first and second past tenses." — Perley. 

Select and name the tenses of verbs in 

Exercise 32. 

1. John reads well. 2. Rufus rode into the country. 3. The 
sun will shine. 4. The farmer plows the ground in spring. 5. 
My father returned yesterday. 6. A wise son will make a glad 
father. 7. I may spend my time in the country next summer. 8. 
I can go to town next week, and you may go with me. [). If it 
should rain to-morrow, I may not leave before Saturday. 10. 
Would you go if you could get the privilege? 11. The husband- 
man plows, sows, and reaps. 12. lie wrote last week. 13. I will 
write him lest he neglect my business. 14. Should I be disappoint- 
ed, I shall despair. 15. Unless he repent he will not be pardoned. 
16. I might assist him if he would do his duty, and he could do it 
easily. 17. He would be cruel to her, if she should return. 18. 
If he will assist me, I shall be much obliged to him. 1 0. (U>, then, 
I would not harm thee. 20. " Come on, then, besiege the senate- 
house, make a camp of the forum, fill the jails with our chief no- 
bles." 21. I have received two packages to-day. 

Note 18 — Remarks on Tense v,y Noah Websteb. 

"The words if, though, unless, and lest, may be followed l>y 
verbs in the future tense, without the usual auxiliaries shall, will, 
or should ; as, 'Jf his son ask bread, will he give him a stone'.'" 
' If he ask a fish, will he give him a serpent T ' Though he slay 
me, yet will I trust in him.' ' ife shall not eat of the holy things, 
unless he wash his flesh with water.' • Lest thou say, I have made 
Abram rieh.' 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Except has a like effect upon the following verb ; as, ' I will 
not let thee go, except thou bless me.' 

" The arrangement of the foregoing form of the verb, in the pres^ 
ent tense of the subjunctive mood, is one of the most palpable 
mistakes that the compilers of English grammars have committed. 
It seems to have originated in the Saxon and ancient English prac- 
tice of omitting the personal termination, to express future time — 
shall and will not being much used, in ancient times, for this pur- 
pose. In consequence of this practice, the translators of the Bible, 
who wrote the style of the age of Elizabeth,* rarely made any dif- 
ference between & present uncertainty and a future contingency ; 
so that the present and future tenses of the original are confounded, 
and the form of the verb in English, which comprehends both, has 
been placed by grammarians in the present tense of the conditional 
mode. 

" As a general fact, the original Hebrew verb, which the trans- 
lators have rendered by a verb without shall or will or a personal 
termination, is in the future tense ; and the English verb, having 
the sense of the future, ought to be arranged in grammars under 
that tense. 

" This remark is confirmed by the Greek translation of the 
Seventy — who render the Hebrew by a verb in the future or by 
an aorist, the sense of which after a sign of condition, is future. 

" In the New Testament, the aorist, with the sense of a future, 
is generally rendered by a like form of the English verb. ' Take 
heed lest any man deceive you' — that is, shall or should deceive 
you. 

" The translation may be considered as correct ; but to make it 
correct, the verbs should, in grammars, be arranged under the future 
tense, or an aorist. 

" The use of the present of the subjunctive, without the personal 
terminations, was formerly very general. It was reserved for the 
classical writers of the eighteenth century to lay aside the pedantic 
forms, if he go, if it proceed, though he come, etc., and restore the 
native idiom of the language, by writing it as men spoke it, and as 
they still speak it, unless perverted by grammars.'' — Webster's 
Gram., pp. 138-140. 

Note 19 — The Present Tense. 

44 The Present tense expresses what is going on at the present 
time ; as, I love ; I am loved." — P. Bullions, p. 71. 

* The present translation of the Bible is commonly oonsidered as made 
in the reign of James I. But on comparing it with the translations pub- 
lished in the beginning of Elizabeth's reign, it is evident that the last 
translators merely revised the former copies, altering a few phrases and 
words ; but leaving the body of the style unaltered. 



TENSE. 55 

I propose to compare Dr. Bullions's definition of the present tense 
with the examples usually called present tense. You observe, he 
has two voices, and five moods in each voice, thus making ten dif- 
ferent examples of the present tense. Active voice, first, " He 
loves." " Indicative mood, present tense." * This will do, as loves 
" expresses what is going on at the present time." " The wind may 
blow to-morrow," may Mow is potential mood, present tense. 
On the 69th page, he observes, " In other words, the potential 
mood expresses, not what the subject does, or is, etc., but what it 
may, can, must, might, could, would, or should do, or be," etc. 
There is some difference between what the wind may do to-morrow, 
and what it does at the present time, Why call " may blow" pres- 
ent tense, as this expression does not tell what the wind does at 
the present time, but what it may do to-morrow, hereafter, or some 
future time ? " The future tense expresses what will take place in 
future time." — Bullions, p. 73. 

My dear doctor, does not " may blow" in the sentence above, 
express what will take place in future time ? But you teach us, in 
the potential mood, that " may blow" is present tense. Which tense 
shall we adopt ? 

" The Present subjunctive, in its proper form, according to pres 
ent approved usage, has always a future reference ; that is, it de- 
notes a present uncertainty or contingency respecting a supposed 
future action or event ; thus, [ If he write,' is equivalent to ' If he 
should write/ or ' If he shall write.' " — Bullions, p. 74. 

If write, in this example, is, as Dr. Bullions says, equivalent to 
should write or shall write, why call it present tense ? He calls 
should write imperfect tense ; shall write future tense. If all these 
verbs are equivalent in point of time, I see no reason why they 
should be all placed in different tenses. 

So, write, in the sentence, " If he write," is present tense, because 
it expresses an action in such a way that it is doubtful whether 
the action ever will take place or not. A strange reason for 
calling any action present — going on at the present time — because 
there is a " preseut uncertainty or contingency whether it ever will 
take place or not ;" therefore, we are authorized to say that it is 
going on at the present time. Strange logic ! 

" The imperative mood has only the present tense, and that has 
respect to the time of the command, exhortation, etc. The doing 
of the thing commanded must, of course, be posterior to the com- 
mand requiring it." — Bullions, p. 75. Does tense have reference 
to the time of speaking of an act, or has it reference to the time of 
the act spoken of ? If, at this moment, I say, " I wrote a letter 
yesterday," is wrote present tense, because the time of speaking is 
present? or « I will write to-morrow?" The time of saying "I 
will write" is present ; is "will write," therefore, present? Ac- 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cording to this doctrine, all verbs used in speaking would be pre- 
sent tense — in reading, all would be past, because the time of 
speaking of the action would be past. " Bring me a book to-mor- 
row." Bring is a verb. Does bring " express what is going on at 
the present time? If so, bring, according to the definition just 
given by Bullions, is present tense ; but, if bring " expresses what 
will take place in future time'' I contend, according to the defi- 
nition of the future tense just quoted from the same author, p. 73, 
that bring, and all similar expressions, are verbs in the future 
tense. If an act is going on at the present time, there is no use to 
command it to be done ; but, if I wish something to be done to- 
morrow, it may be quite necessary that I should issue a command 
to that effect. 

" I intend to write next week." Does write here " express what 
is going on at the present time ?" If so, it is clearly present tense ; 
but, if it does not, I see no propriety in the name. But we are 
told that the intention is present. Yery well ; does write express 
the intention, or is intend used for this purpose ? If the latter, I 
am willing to admit that intend is present tense ; but intend is 
not a verb in the infinitive mood, and I would be pleased to see a 
verb answering to the description of the present infinitive. 

The five following examples are given as specimens of the pres- 
ent tense in the passive voice : "The house is built" Indicative 
mood, present tense. " The act of building is here represented, not 
as continuing, but completed" — Bullions, p. 95. If is built re- 
presents the act of building, not as continuing, but as completed, 
where is the propriety of calling it present tense, thereby represent- 
ing the act as going on at the present time ? The house may be 
built for a thousand dollars. May be built, " is potential mood, 
present tense," according to Bullions. Does " may be built" ex- 
press what is going on at the present time. " If the house be built 
of stone, it will cost more than a thousand dollars." Here the 
pupil is required to say that be built is subjunctive mood, present 
tense, because there is some present doubt, uncertainty, or contin- 
gency, whether the act of building ever will take place or not. 
He must say, the act of building is going on at the present time, 
because it is not, and may never be, going on — strange require- 
ment ! 

Imperative mood, present tense. 

" Be thou instructed, 7 ' and the task is accomplished, I suppose, 
or, at least, necessarily commenced, as it is now going on — this is 
magical. Infinitive mood, present tense. " Let the house be built 
of stone," and the walls are going up instantly — this is beautiful, — 
it is sublimely miraculous. It is often said, there is but one step 
from the sublime to the ridiculous — I apprehend, it would not be 
a difficult leap to take in this instance. Of the ten examples re- 



TENSE. . 57 

viewed, one, however, is right, or in accordance with the definition 
of the present tense — better right one time in ten, than never. It 
is said, " Precept is better than example." But here, I believe, I 
should prefer the precept, as his examples are of such — or more 
than — doubtful character. 

" An Indian once sold a deer to a white man, and received pay- 
ment. After which he directed him how to find it. ' Go,' said the 
Indian, * over the ridge (pointing to a ridge), and on the other 
side you will find a run ; take up the run, and you will come to a 
black tree, on which you will find the deer.' The white man went, 
but found no deer. At his return, he called on the Indian, to 
make him refund the price of the deer. ' Did you not,' said the 
Indian, 'find the ridge?' The white man replied, ' yes.' 'Did 
you not find the run ?' ' Yes.' ' Did you not find the black tree V 
1 Yes,' said the white man, ' but I found no deer on it.' The In- 
dian replied, ' three truths in four are enough for Indian.' Is one 
truth in ten enough for Grammar, or enough to teach American 
youths the English language ?" 

Note 20— Imperfect Tense. 

" The imperfect tense expresses what took place in time past, 
however distant ;" as, John died. — R. C. Smith's Gram., p. 66. 
He further remarks : " When any particular period of past time 
is specified or alluded to, we use the imperfect tense ; as, John wrote 
yesterday." What does tense mean, Mr. Smith ? " Tense means 
time." p. 24 What does imperfect mean ? " Unfinished, or incom- 
plete," p. 24. Here, both the act and the time (or tense) of the act 
are past, finished, completed, perfected ; then, why call the tense, 
or time, imperfect, when really there is nothing about it but 
what is perfect ? We are sometimes reminded that this term is 
used in Latin, etc., and that it is important to preserve a corre- 
spondence in terms. It is true the term imperfect is used in Latin, 
but is applied very differently ; as, " God created the world in six 
days." In our English Grammars, generally, created is called im- 
perfect tense ; but creavit, the corresponding Latin word, is called 
perfect tense ; here is a very different application of the term. 
Which is right? One must be wrong. This tense in the old 
grammars is called preterite, Latin, preteritus, past. — The latter 
term is used in the Philosophical Grammar. 

The reader will please bear these definitions in mind, while we 
hastily review some specimens of the so-called imperfect tense. 
" It might rain before you return," " might rain" is called imper- 
fect tense, potential mood. You bear in mind what Smith says of 
this tense. But does " might rain" express what took place in 
past time, however distant. This is too plain to require refuta- 
tion ; however, let us hear a class on this verb. The first, in Smith's 
2* 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

senior grammar class, may give us the tense of "might rain. x 
"Might rain is in the imperfect tense, potential mood, etc." What 
does the imperfect tense express ? " The imperfect tense expresses 
what took place in time past, however distant." " It doesn't appear 
so." Why then put it in a tense which expresses past action? 
" We don't know any reason ; but the book says might is the sign 
of the imperfect potential, and we are taught to place it accord- 
ingly." What do you, little girls, say ? Does " might rain" express 
something that took place in past time, however distant — or does 
it express an action to take place in time to come ? Here every 
little child answers promptly, " time to come." Senior class, 
What do you say to this, did the little girls answer correctly ? 
" It is reasonable, but not according to our books." From 
whom do you get books ? " Men write books for us." From 
whom does reason come ? " God gives us reason." Which should 
we prefer, the instruction in books, or the dictates of reason — the 
gift of our Maker ? " Reason assuredly." Then which is right in 
this dispute, the little girls, or Smith ? " The little girls have 
reason and truth on their side." If " might rain" expresses some- 
thing to take place in time to come, according to reason, in what 
tense should it be ? Let the first answer. " It is future tense, be- 
cause it implies time to come." What future tense ? " Simply 
the future tense, because ' might rain' expresses an act to take 
place hereafter." " The future tense expresses what will take place 
hereafter." — Smith's Gram., p. 25. What does the next in the 
class say ? " This is wrong, l might rain' should be second future, 
because it expresses an act that is to take place before another act 
— (your return)." "The second future expresses what will have 
taken place at or before some future time mentioned." — Smith, 
p. 25. The act of raining is to take place before that of return- 
ing, hence, " might rain" is second future, at least, according to 
the grammars. Second, because it is to take place prior to the 
other action, — before you return. 

In what tense is return? "Return is first future, because it is to 
take place last, or after the rain." What does the third pupil say ? 
" Return is not first future, because the first future has shall or will 
for its sign." So you go according to signs. What do you, little 
girls, say, who have not been taught the signs in grammar ; but 
who rely only on your own reason and common sense, if I tell you 
of two future acts, one to take place to-morrow, the other some 
time afterwards, as " it might rain before you return," which 
would you call first, and which second, future? "Might rain 
is first future, because it takes place first, or before you return. 
Return may be called second future, because it takes place last, 
or after the first." What does the senior class say to this? 
" We were not taught that way, we recite according to the book ; 



TENSE. 59 

but those little girls just answer as they think — the book bothers 
us." Yes, yes, these books are well calculated to bother you. Are 
you all satisfied ? Here, one of the older pupils, not being exactly 
satisfied, remarks : " ' Might rain ' expresses a future action, it is 
true, but it is attended with some doubt, and our grammars teach 
us, when a future action is expressed with some contingency, that 
the subjunctive mood, present tense — should be used." The little 
girls laugh. — The older boys and girls are ashamed. 

"If I could exercise my choice, I would not study Smith's 
grammar." In what tense is could exercise 1 

" Subjunctive mood, imperfect tense." The first pupil may give 
the reason. " I cannot give the reason ; for I don't know any. I 
know what the book says, could exercise is potential mood, imper- 
fect tense, could being the sign of this tense." What does the se- 
cond pupil think ? The book says, " if is the sign of the subjunctive 
mood ; could, the sign of the imperfect tense," therefore, M could 
exercise must be in the subjunctive mood, imperfect tense." What 
do you, little pupils, think of it ? " Could exercise does not express 
what took place in time past, but something we wish to take 
place, therefore it is not imperfect tense." What do you, older pu- 
pils, say now ? The act does not appear past, but to take place 
hereafter. " We don't know any tense that will suit it except the 
present subjunctive, because a contingent future." What do you, 
little fellows, say to this ? " We would never say that any act is 
past or present, when it never has taken place, and it is doubtful 
whether it ever would go on or not, though we have not learned 
the signs of the tenses." Having said enough on this part of the 
subject, I hope, to satisfy any reasonable mind; and, lest I should be 
unnecessarily tedious, I will respectfully refer the reader to a further 
examination for himself, if necessary. 

Note 21— Perfect Tense. 

What is tense ? " Tense, being the distinction of Time, might 
seem to admit only of the present, past, and future, etc." Here it 
might be well for the reader to bear in mind that Murray defines 
tense to be a distinction of Time, not action, and so do all authors — 
tense having no reference to action, except by way of distinction 
of time. " The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, but 
also conveys an allusion to the present time ; as, " I have finished 
my letter." — Murray's Gram., p. 77. 

Murray further informs us, that " the Perfect tense denotes an 
action in such a manner, that there is still actually remaining some 
part of the time to slide away." If there is some part of the time 
(tense) to slide away, why call this time, or tense, perfect ? 

1. " I have finished my letter to-day." 

2. " You finished your letter yesterday." 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

You observe both letters are finished — perfected — so far as th« 
act and the time of the action are concerned. Then, why call the 
tense or time of the first action perfect tense — to-day, the time 
alluded to, being yet present ? But the time of the second action, 
yesterday, being past, is called imperfect tense. Because, say the 
Murray school, " the period of the first action is not completed 
(not perfected), but conveys an allusion to the present time." 
Then, if the period denoted by the term includes the present 
moment — not closed — not perfected — why call that period — time 
— tense, Perfect ? 

In the second example, " you finished your letter yesterday." 
They parse "finished," in the imperfect tense, though both the 
action and the time of the action are past — perfect. In other 
words, the Murray school call that which has been perfected, im- 
perfect ; but what is incomplete, imperfect, they are pleased to call 
perfect. I trust, it is unnecessary to adduce any more illustrations 
to expose these misnomers, though a dozen pages would not con- 
tain half the obvious objections that might readily be urged. 

The compound expression, called the perfect tense, is not a verb, 
but a combination of two distinct parts of speech — the present 
tense of the verb and a perfect participle ; as, ' ; I have written my 
letter to-day." Have is the present tense form of the verb, hence, 
"an allusion to the present time." " Written," the perfect parti- 
ciple of the verb write, represents a past action as perfect to-day, 
a period embracing the present moment ; thus a reference to the 
past is connected with the present. This is the great mystery of 
the perfect tense combination conveying an allusion to the pres- 
ent time. 

Written is not a verb, neither is it any part of a verb, as may 
be seen in every instance in which the perfect participle differs in 
form from the past tense. 

" Note 6. We should use participles, only, after have, and had, 
and the verb to be" — R 0. Smith's Gram., p. 82. 

From this note, I apprehend, Smith intended to say, we should 
not use verbs, but participles, after the variations of have and be ; 
therefore written, and all words similarly used, should be partici- 
ples. " Have written" is a combination of a verb and a participle, 
— two different parts of speech. A composition of two different 
ingredients is neither the first, nor can it be the second, element. 

Note 22 — The Pluperfect Tense. 

" The Pluperfect tense is that which expresses what had taken 
place at some past time mentioned ; as, 'I had seen him when I 
met you.' " — G. Brown's Gram, of Grammars, p. 326. The same 
author also furnishes us with several examples of the pluperfect 
tense, which I wish you to compare with the requisitions of hisdefi- 



TENSE. 61 

nition. " The pluperfect tense, when used conditionally, instead of 
expressing what actually had taken place at a past time, almost 
always implies that the action thus supposed never was perform- 
ed.' 1 If an action positively never was performed, why call it 
pluperfect tense, thus signifying that the action actually had taken 
place at a past time ? He continues, " on the contrary, if the sup- 
position be made in a negative form, it suggests that the event had 
occurred ; as, ' Lord, if thou hadst been here, my brother had not 
died.' — John, xi, 32. Why call both expressions, hadst been, 
had died, pluperfect tenses ? Both of them cannot denote prior 
action, and priority appears to be the essence of this tense. Again, 
1 If I had not come and spoken unto them, they had not had sin ; 
but now they have no cloak for their sin." — John, xv, 22. " If thou 
hadst known, even thou, at least, in this thy day, the things which 
belong unto thy peace ! But now they are hid from thine eyes."— 
Luke, xix, 42. The supposition is sometimes indicated by a mere 
transposition of the verb and its subject ; in which case, the con- 
junction if\s omitted ; as, "Had ye believed Moses, ye would have 
believed me." — John, v, 46. " Would have believed " is pluper- 
fect potential ; but it appears to express subsequent, not prior, 
action. Then why call it pluperfect? Indeed, shall we call would 
have believed potential mood, or would it not be more appropriate 
to call it subjunctive mood ? This expression beiDg subjoined and 
conditional, but the previous expression, had ye believed, is sub- 
junctive — how is this ? Both cannot be subjoined, yet both are 
put in the subjunctive mood ; yet would have is the sign of the po- 
tential pluperfect. — See G. Brown's Gram, of Grammars, p. 328, 
obs. 8. 

To say the least of these examples, Mr. G. Brown has not been 
very happy in his illustrations of the pluperfect tense. " God must 
have known the fate of men before he created them." The know- 
ledge here spoken of was prior to the act of creation ; therefore, 
" must have known' 7 is pluperfect tense according to the definition 
under consideration ; but according to the G. Brown's conjugation, 
p. 351, " This tense (perfect potential) prefixes the auxiliaries, 
may have, can have, or must have, to the perfect participle." 
Consequently we can prove " must have known" to be perfect or 
pluperfect tense, at pleasure. 

It may be seen, from the following examples, that the so-called 
pluperfect tense does not necessarily (as the definition requires) ex- 
press " what had taken place at some past time mentioned," but 
often expresses what had taken place after (not before) the time 
alluded to. ' ' Finally, we may see from examples which occur 
every hour, that these very verbs that are confined by our British 
English grammars to the pluperfect tense, are generally in the im- 
perfect or perfect tense." — J. Browx's Appeal, p. 532. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Imperfect ; as, " He might have learned yesterday/' Perfect ; 
as, " He might have written this week to his friends." Subsequent, 
not prior action ; as, " The lad should have gone immediately after 
his father bade him ;" again, " I might have loved her after she 
returned to the city." Here the acts of going and loving are " rep- 
resented as having been possible after (not before) the other point 
of time." — See J. Brown's Appeal. 

The combination, called the pluperfect tense, is nothing but the 
perfect participle added to the past tense of the verb have. The 
past tense of have marks the period of time as past ; the perfect 
participle denotes the action as perfected either before, at, or after 
some other action or time referred to. 

This combination is often obscure, imperfect, inelegant, and, 
though sometimes admissible, is seldom indispensable, and often er- 
roneous ; it ought, therefore, to be used sparingly. The significa- 
tion intended can generally be much better expressed by the past 
tense of the verb and an adverb of time. " I had finished my 
letter before he arrived" is saying no more than " I finished my let- 
ter before he arrived ;" and it is not saying it quite so well. 

Note 23 — First and Second Futures. 

" The first future tense represents the action as yet to come* 
either with or without respect to the precise time ; as, ' The sun will 
rise to-morrow :' ' I shall see them again.' The second future inti- 
mates that the action will be fully accomplished at or before the 
time of another future action or event ; as, ' I shall have dined at 
one o'clock ;' ' The two houses will have finished their business 
when the king comes to prorogue them.' " — Murray's Gram., p. 
59. 

Why have a second future ? The first future, as we have just 
seen, may represent an action, either with or without respect to the 
precise time. What more can the second future do ? The first 
future also obviously includes the second future ; as, " I shall dine 
at or before one o'clock," is equally as precise as the second future 
expression, " I shall have dined at one o'clock." The second future 
expression, just quoted, is clearly described in the definition of the 
first future. If it is advantageous, important — indispensably neces- 
sary to divide the future, in order to denote the precise time of an 
action, why have only two futures ? Does this division completely 
exhaust the subject ? Is it sufficiently definite — precise ? If it is 
necessary to call an act that is to take place prior to another act 
or specified time, second future, why is it not equally necessary to 
distinguish an act that is to occur after another act or specified 
time? " I shall see them again," is first future. This is not very 
precise. " I shall see them before to-morrow," or " shall have seen 
them," etc., as you please. This is called second future, "t shall 



TENSE. 63 

see them after to-morrow." In order to be precise, and distinguish 
these expressions, what tense is this last ? 

" I will see them at one o'clock, or a certain time, to-morrow." 
What tense ? This expression is definite as to time ; consequently, 
how can it be classed with the indefinite expression, "I shall see 
them again," which, we are told, is first future ? A classification 
comprising definite with indefinite has rich claims to boast of pre- 
cision ! Then we insist upon knowing what those futures are to be 
called, which must take place at or after specified times or actions ? 
Why not name and distinguish these last futures as well as the first 
two ? To what futures must actions be assigned which are repre- 
sented as progressing, or will be going on indefinitely before, at, or 
after any particular time or event ; as, " Mary will be reading ere 
long ;" " We shall have been making preparations a week before 
our friends arrive." Webster calls this tense Prior-Future defi- 
nite. " They will have performed their task by the appointed hour." 
This Webster calls Prior-Future indefinite. He explains this 
tense thus : " This form of the future tense denotes an action which 
will be past at a future time specified." — Webster's Gram., p. 
52. Why call this tense indefinite ? " The boys are reading 
Latin now, but they will be reading Greek after the examination." 
What tense is " will be reading Greek," etc.? Here it appears 
that a supply of tenses is wanting, or, at least, names for tenses. 
Webster gives four future tenses — he might have given forty or 
more. The Eoyal Academy of Spain gives an elaborate and me- 
thodical explanation of seven future tenses ; and if the Spaniards 
expect to specify every point of time, they might, with as much 
propriety, give seventy times seven tenses, and still leave the task 
unaccomplished. 

The various subdivisions of the times of actions are not express- 
ed by the verb alone, but by the use of adverbs, adjuncts, phrases, 
clauses,and especially by the combinations of participles with verbs ; 
and should we attempt to give names to the various subdivisions 
of time thus expressed, terms would not only fail us, but numbers 
would be exhausted. Grammar has to do with the modifications, 
not the combinations, of words. Grammarians often unnecessarily 
do much more to complicate, and thus mystify, than to elucidate or 
simplify. If you must have two futures, why distinguish them as first 
and second ? Why not have third, fourth, fifth, future tenses, etc.? 
" The two houses will have finished their business when the king 
comes to prorogue them," " will have finished," though it ex- 
press the prior action, is called second future ! " comes" expresses 
the subsequent or last action, yet, strange to say, comes is denomi- 
nated first future ; thus, the first is second ; and the last, first ! ! 

Wells, Bullions, Butler, Green, and a few others, perhaps, hav- 
ing observed this perversion of language, have applied the improved 



64 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



term, future-perfect ; hence, the future — that which is not taking 
place, has not taken place, and may never take place, to render the 
ridiculous yet more ridiculous, and to crown the climax of absurdi- 
ties — is perfect ; a perfect future, perfect nonsense ! 

COMPARSION OF ADVERBS. 

97. Rem. — Adverbs ending in ly are compared by the use of 
the helping words, more and most, less and least. 

Exercise 33. 

positive. comparative. superlative. 

Slowly, more slowly, most slowly. 

Delightfully, " delightfully, " delightfully. 

Rapidly, * " rapidly, " rapidly. 

Admirably, " admirably, " admirably. 

Elegantly, li elegantly, " elegantly. 

Nobly, " nobly, " nobly. 

Compare the examples above with the use of the help- 
ing words, less and least; as, Slowly, less slowly, least 
slowly. 

98. Rem. — Some adverbs are compared without helping words, 
as in the following : 

Exercise 34. 



POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE 


Near, 


nearer, 




nearest, next. 


Soon, 


sooner, 




soonest, first. 


Late, 


later, 




latest, last. 


Fast, 


faster, 




fastest. 


Well, 


better, 




best. 


Badly, ill, 


worse (n. 


ivus), 


worst. 


Little (n. leetle), 


less, 




least. 


Much, 


more, 




most. 


Often, 


oftener, 


'i 


oftenest 


Far (n.fur, u.fair), 


farther, ) 


(n. fardf 


^ farthest, 



As the following sentences are read, mention the verbs 
and adverbs, also compare a few of the adverbs, in 

Exercise 35. 

1. Diligence is seldom unrewarded. 2. Truth never fear3 ex- 
amination, however rigid it may be. 3. Fortune sometimes 



PRINCIPAL AND HELPING ADVERBS. 65 

favors those whom she afterwards destroys. 4. I will go now. 
5. When did Miss Ann return? 6. She has gone before. 7. 
They never write to their parents. 8. The boys lagged behind. 
9. Where is my friend ? 10. He is here. 11. A simple sentence 
contains but one verb. 12. She went away yesterday. 13. They 
will perhaps trade to-morrow. You will learn hereafter. 14. 
Sooner or later all must die. 15. Then they rejoiced. 16. That 
pupil should not remain. 17. There came to the beach a poor 
exile of Erin. 18. He is far from home. 19. Abraham stretched 
forth his hand to slay him. 20. Up goes the ponderous bridge. 
21. They went almost to Boston. 22. He is able to manage well. 
23. The exiles were repining miserably. 24. By managing 
adroitly, he succeeded. 25. My house is yonder. 26. Who came 
first? 27. Who went last? 28. God is everywhere. 29. Can 
a spendthrift ever become wealthy ? 30. Porter was once a judge. 
31. We often seek our own injury. 32. Hitherto democracy wa3 
in the ascendancy. 33. Perhaps he will admit my plea. 34. You 
may perchance succeed. 35. Peradventure he hears my prayer. 
36. He should therefore try again. 37. Hereby ye shall know 
them. 38. I have seen Gov. Quitman once or twice. 39. The 
steamer ran aground. 40. I saw Gen. Houston first in Texas, 
secondly in Washington. 41. The ship was driven ashore. 42. 
He swam quite across the river. 43. They are abed. 44. They 
are afoot. 45. They have gone ahead. 46. The boat ran 
aground. 

Note 24 — Division of Adverbs. 

u The numerous distinctions of adverbs into those of time, place 
and quantity, causual, illative, adversative, etc., seem to be more 
perplexing than useful. We might as well make the definition of 
every word in our dictionaries the foundation of a class, as to re- 
cognize the divisions of this species of words, with which the in- 
genuity of authors has filled our grammars."— N.Webster's Gram.y 
p. 80. 

PRINCIPAL AND HELPING ADVERBS. 

Q. How are principal and helping adverbs distinguished? 

99. A. The principal adverb qualifies the verb di- 
rectly, while the helping adverb, by uniting its signi- 
fication with that of the principal, qualifies the verb 
indirectly. 

100. Rem. — " He writes very rapidly" rapidly is the principal 
adverb, because it qualifies the verb writes directly ; very is the 
helping adverb, because it helps the adverb rapidly, and indirectly 
qualifies the verb writes. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

As the following sentences are read, mention which are 
helping, and which are principal, adverbs, in 

Exercise 36. 

1. Alonzo behaves very prettily. 2. Helen dresses more neatly 
than Matilda. 3. Cynthia sings most sweetly. 4. Her house is 
less elegantly finished. 5. That man is the least peaceably disposed. 
6. How completely his passions have blinded him. 7. Hall 
composes tolerably well. 8. You learn grammar tolerably fast. 
9. Mary reads quite fluently. 10. How often does the parson 
visit you ? 11. He should come much oftener. 12. The company 
have assembled much too early. 13. Your friend came rather 
too* late. 14. The boys have learned their lessons decidedly bet- 
ter. 15. This is used almost exclusively in the old editions of the 
Bible. 16. Henry promised to attend much sooner. 17. What 
is the reason of this person's dismissing his servant so hastily ? 

101. *Rem. — Adverbs may have two or more helping adverbs, 
as in this sentence ; both rather and too are helping adverbs. 

Rule 7. 
Descriptives qualify nouns and pronouns. 
Model 7. 

" Such events are of very seldom occurrence." 
Say, Such events are of very rare occurrence, R. 7. 

Seldom is an adverb, therefore the descriptive rare 
should be used to qualify the noun occurrence. 

Parsing. 

" Such events are of very rare occurrence." (1) 
Very is the helping descriptive, (2) helps rare the 
principal descriptive, in the positive degree, de- 
scribe occurrence, (3) E. 7. 

" Studious scholars learn long lessons." (1) Studi- 
ous is a descriptive, (2) positive degree, (3) describes 
scholars, (4) R. 7. 

Correct the errors according to the model, give a syste- 
matic parsing of some of the descriptives after the correc- 
tions have been made, also parse a few of the definitives, in 



ADVERBS QUALIFY VERBS. 67 

Exercise 37. 

1. Give him a soon and decisive answer. 2. He has made this 
picture very handsomely. 3. The rose smells sweetly. 4. The 
now copies of the original text are entire. — S. Fisher. 5. Of 
whom he makes often mention. 6. Yirtue only makes us happy. — 
Clark's Gram., p. 101. 7. The tutor addressed him in terms 
rather harsh, but suitably to his rank. 8. Use a little wine for 
thy stomach's sake, and thine often infirmities. 9. He requires 
conditions suitably to his rank. 10. Velvet feels very smooth. 

Note 25. — Adjectives do not describe Nouns. 
R. C. Smith, on page 52, Rule 4, says, " Adjectives belong to 
the nouns which they describe." Do not adjectives also belong 
to pronouns ? This is a slight deficiency in the rule, as it covers 
only half the ground required by the genius of the language. 
Adjectives, however, do not describe nouns, nor pronouns, but 
simply modify or qualify such words, and thus describe whatever 
may be represented. 

Eule 8. 
Adverbs qualify verbs. 

Model 8. 

" She reads correct." Say, She reaas correctly, 
R. 8. Correct should be correctly, to have the ad- 
verbial form ; as adverbs, not descriptives, qua- 
lify verbs. 

Parsing. 

" She reads correctly." (1) Correctly is an adverb, 
(2) positive degree, (3) qualifies the verb reads, 
(4) R. 8. 

" The cars move very rapidly." (1) Very is a help- 
ing adverb, (2) helps rapidly, the principal adverb, 
in the positive degree, (3) qualify the verb move, 
(4) R. 8. 

Correct the errors, and parse the adverbs involved, also 
give a systematic parsing of some of the definitives and 
descriptives, in 

Exercise 38. 

1. She reads well and writes neat. 2. Harriet reads proper, 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

writes neatly, and composes accurate. 3. He can't hear good. — 
A professor. 4. Susan studies diligent, therefore she progresses 
rapidly. 5. Helen dresses neatly, and behaves delightful. 6. 
Henry reads and spells very bad. 7. Edward speaks quite flu- 
ently, and reasons very just. 8. The deepest streams run the most 
silent. 9. I cannot think so meanly of him. 10. She acted much 
wiser than the others. 11. Do not walk so slow. 

Rule 9. 

Avoid unnecessary negatives. 

Model 9.. 

" I will not never write." Say, I will never write, 
or I will not write, R. 9. 

Omit the unnecessary negatives in 
Exercise 39. 

1. He did not see nobody. 2. Do not give him none of your 
money. 3. Nothing never affects her. 4. Nobody was not there. 
5. Nothing can ever justify ingratitude. 6. I will not, by no 
means, entertain a spy. 7. I like neither his temper nor his prin- 
ciples. 8. He did not owe nothing. 

102. Rem. — Two negatives may be used, one a separable, the 
other an inseparable, negative ; thus forming what is often called a 
pleasing or delicate affirmative; as, "The pilot was not unacquainted 
with the coast,'' that is, he had some knowledge of the coast. 

103. Rem. — "A repetition of the same negative renders the ne- 
gation more emphatic ;" as, " I would never lay down my arms — 
never — never — never." — Pitt. See Wells's Gram., p. 170. 

104. Rem. — Two negatives may be used, one being a helping, the 
other a principal, conjunctive ; as, "Neither he nor I intend to go." 

Note 26 — Two Negatives. 

" Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or are equiva- 
lent to an affirmative." — Murray's Gram., R. 16. 

Though this principle has long been laid down by the Murray 
school generally, yet it is quite exceptionable, aud not correct as a 
rule. I frankly admit that the examples, usually huddled under 
this rule, are erroneous ; not necessarily so, because negatives de- 
stroy each other, or produce affirmatives ; but, because more 
negatives are used than are requisite, and which should be treated as 
other grammatic errors — other unnecessary and superfluous words — 
rejected. If every error in grammar, and every superfluous word, 
must constitute an affirmative, we should have much positive 



RELATIVES. 69 

Suppose you should say to a friend, in the presence of a beggar 
asking alms, " Sir, don't give him none of your money." Would 
the poor mendicant be consoled by your expression, thinking that 
you were encouraging your friend to contribute to his necessities ? 
Certainly not, if acquainted with the English language, (I don't 
mean Eng. Grammars). 

I presume, your friend, if an intelligent man, sober, awake, and 
in his right mind, would not regard you as speaking affirmatively, 
notwithstanding you employed two negatives, any number of 
grammars to the contrary. I am sure you would not be so cruel 
as to speak thus, if disposed to favor the needy creature. I ven- 
ture the poor fellow at the door would think it a curious way to 
promote his interest, though Murray's ghost should arise to inform 
him, that two negatives having been used, they had destroyed each 
other, and lo ! and behold ! a pleasing and delicate affirmative was 
the astonishing product ! The fable of the Phoenix is surpassed ! 

The story of the Kilkenny cats will bear telling no more ! The 
superstitious doctrine of metempsychosis may receive collateral 
authority from hoary grammars, and may, ere long, be fully as 
respectable as many other fogy opinions. 

I have heard a very intelligent lady make the inquiry, " If two 
negatives constitute an affirmative, how many bitters would be 
necessary to make one sweet ?" 

I wish the ladies all the knowledge of sweet things possible ; 
but not knowing any principle in philosophy giving an answer to 
this question ; being taught to class the fable of the Phoenix with 
other tales of fiction ; not being disposed to regard the story of 
the Kilkennys as authoritative history ; nor fully satisfied of the 
truth of the transmigration of souls, though older than Murray's 
grammar, and believed implicitly by all the old grannies of the 
land ; I beg leave to refer the fair inquirer, for a solution of her 
problem, kindly and respectfully, to some of the Murray menders. 



during, 

ere, 

except, 

excepting, 

for, 

from, 

in \ 

inside, 

into, 

like, Ipeare), 

near (Shaks- 





RELATIVES. 




105 — List of Kelatives. 


A, or an, 


among, 


below, 


about, 


amongst, 


beneath, 


above, 


around, 


beside, 


according to, 


as, 


besides, 


across, 


aslant, 


between, 


after, 


as to, 


betwixt, 


against (p. agenst, astride, 


beyond, 


n. aginst), 


at, 


but, 


along, 


athwart, 


^ 


amid, 


before, 


concerning. 


amidst, 


behind, 


down, 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

nigh (Milton), over thwart, through, unlike, 

notwithstanding, outside, throughout, until, 

o' (as o'clock), past (for by), than, unto, 

of, per, till (n. tell), up, 

off, respecting, to, upon, 

on, regarding, touching, via (by), 

on to, round, toward, with, 

opposite, since (n. sence), towards, within, 

over, save, under, without, 

saving, underneath, worth.* 

106. * Rem. — " Some eminent philologists do not admit the 
propriety of supplying an ellipsis after like, worth, ere, but, 
except, and than, but consider them prepositions (relatives). — 
Kirkham, p. 75. An ellipsis — say ellipses, R. 1. 

"If a substitute (pronoun) is used after worth, it must be in 
the objective case (object) ; as, " It is with them or it." — 
Webster. 



Having read the previous list over carefully several 
times, mention or write the relatives in 

Exercise 40. 

1. The boy threw his hat up-stairs — under the bed — behind the 
table — through the window — over the house — across the street — 
into the water. — Kirkham. 2. We rode inside the stage from 
town. 3. The parson walks about the church throughout the 
day. 4. The paper lies before me on the desk. 5. Every man 
should live within his means. 6. No man should think of living 
without labor. 7. She went round the parish making complaints. 
8. The eagle can soar amid the clouds. 9. That clergyman lives 
happily amidst his people. 10. The young Indian stood beside 
his father. 11. The pretty widow possesses much property be- 
sides this farm. 12. This man is among a thousand. 13. They 
made diligent search amongst the rubbish. 14. The father went 
after his daughter. 15. Napoleon stood with his martial cloak 
around him. 16. My dear parents reside beyond the Mississippi. 
17. He set his face toward the wilderness. 18. The horses 
turned their heads towards home. 19. The young man was put 
upon his good behavior. 20. She is like me, but unlike him. 
21. The sailor boy sat astride the beam. 22. We sleep very com- 
fortably underneath these blankets. 23. Solomon in all his glory 
was not arrayed like one of these. 24. She is worth him and all 
his connections. — Kirkham, p. 162. 25. His room is above-stairs ; 



EXCLAMATIONS. 71 

but yours is below. 26. John went up-stairs ; but William came 
down. 27. He that is not for me is against me. 28. We have 
been walking in the house, now let us walk into the garden with 
our friends. 29. Simon fell off the bow into the river. 
30. England can spare from her service such men as him. — Lord 
Brougham. 31. A piratical vessel came athwart our course. 
32. Robinson's menagerie went past Yernon. 33. William has 
been here since Christmas. 34. If your arguments produce no 
conviction they are worth nothing to me. — Beattie. 35. All the 
boys go to school but him. 36. He owes her ten dollars accord- 
ing to that account. 37. The ball struck aslant the beam. 

38. He remained ia Washington during the last administration. 

39. The house stands near the river. 40. And all desisted, all 
save him alone. — Wordsworth. 41. The lowing herd winds 
slowly o'er the lea. 42. Franklin lies opposite the exchange. 
43. She will return ere another evening's close. 44. The mer- 
chant sells cloth at five dollars per yard. 45. He is in fault 
according to my opinion. 46. He shall be unclean till evening. 
47. To lie is beneath the dignity of a man. 48. The ducks flew 
along the river. 49. Mesopotamia is between the rivers. 50. I 
know none of them except her. 51. Come not nigh me. 52. I 
speak concerning Christ and the Church. — Eph.,v, 32. 53. The 
Doctor will not return until Saturday. 54, Wild winds and mad 
waves drive the vessel a wreck. 55. It is nine o'clock. 56. He 
was the delight of his acquaintances notwithstanding his poverty. 
57. Children quickly distinguish between what is required of them 
and what is not ? — Locke. 

58 " Hard by, a cottage chimney smokes, 

Prom betwixt two aged oaks." — Milton. 

59 " And from his presence, hid himself among 

The thickest trees." — Milton. 

60. " Amongst strawberries, sow here and there a little borage- 
seed."— Bacon. 61. This stage is for Columbus, via Villula. 

62. Washington — than whom a purer patriot never rose. 

63. Kespecting that affair there was a controversy. 64. My 
knife is worth a shilling. — Kirkham, pp. 162. 165. I have written 
a letter regarding him. 66. We liken mortals unto clay. 67. As 
to that I have nothing to say. 68. They were outside the house. 
69 Thou shalt have no other gods than me. — Com. Prayer. 

EXCLAMATIONS. 
107. A list of the principal exclamations. 

1. Calling ; as, O, ho, halloo, hoy, ahoy, avast. 

2. Joy ; as, eigh, hey, io, well done, good, bravo, ha, hi, oho, 
ahah, ay-ay. 



72 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



3. Grief; as, Oh, ah, alas, alack, well-a-day, eh, heigh-ho, heigh- 
ho-hum. 

4. Disgust or contempt; as, fudge, hem, humph, pugh, pogh, 
pshaw, pish, tush, tut, foh, fough, fie, fy, foy, off, whew. 

5. Wonder ; as, strange, indeed, zounds, hah, what, why, heigh. 

6. Attention ; as, lo, behold, look, see, hark, eh, la, law. 

7. Salutation ; as, welcome, hail, all hail, farewell, adieu, good- 
by, how d'ye do, good morning, good evening. 

8. Silence ; as, hush, hist, aw, mum, soft. 

9. Commanding ; as, march, halt, whoh, haw, gee, charge. 
Rem. — Exclamations are parsed by telling the part of speech* 

and repeating the definition. 

Select and parse the exclamations, also me?itio?i the 
other parts of speech, in 

Exercise 42. 

1. Alas ! I can fear nothing worse than I feel. 2. ! for a lodge 
in some vast wilderness. 3. Ah ! I was betrayed by a false friend. 
4. Strange ! that man should oppress his brother and thereby mock 
his God. 5. Why ! George, how could you do that ? 6. What ! 
shall an African ! shall Juba's Ijeir reproach great Cato's son ? 7. 
Keally ! you have come, eh ! 8. Lo ! the poor Indian, whose 
untutored mind sees God in clouds, and hears him in the wind. 9. 
Oh ! what a sight was that. 10. Behold ! how good and how plea- 
sant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity ! 11. What ! 
could you not watch with me one hour ? 12. Ho ! every one that 
thirsts. 13. Pshaw ! you awkward thing. 14. Hah ! it is a 
sight to freeze one ! 15. Ha ! ha! Indeed ! I can scarcely believe 
you. 

108. Rem. — is used in calling ; as, "0 James." Oh is used in 
expressions of grief, pain, etc.; as, "Oh ! I have injured my friend." 

CONJUNCTIVES. 

109. A list of the principal Conjunctives. 



After, 




but, 


if, 


again (p. 


agen, n. 


either, 


if then, 


agin, w. 


agane), 


else, 


lest, 


and, 




ere, 


likewise, 


also, 




except, 


moreover, 


although, 




farther, 


nevertheless, 


as, 




for, 


neither, 


because, 




further, 


notwithstanding, 


before, 




furthermore, 


nor, 


besides, 




hence, 


or, 


both, 




however, 


otherwise, 



provided, 


<J<JJ\ J U J\U ± 1 V J£». 

then, 


where, 


since, 


therefore, 


whereas, 


so, 


though, 


whether, 


so that, 


thus, 


whilst, 


still, 


till, 


while, 


than, 


unless, 


wherefore. 


that, 


when, 


yet. 



73 



110. Rem. — A few words, being used not only to connect sen- 
tences, but to qualify verbs, are consequently denominated adverbial 
conjunctives ; as, " I will go while you stay ;" " I will come when 
you call me." 

111. Rem. — Conjunctives are often omitted for the sake of ele- 
gance ; as, " Property, reputation, virtue, life, were all equally in- 
secure*" — The Levite's Wife, by N. S. S. Beeman. 

Having read the previous list carefully several times, 
select the Conjunctives in 

Exercise 43. 

1. We eagerly pursue pleasure, but oftentimes meet with sad 
disappointments. 2. He labors harder and more successfully than 
I do. 3. That man is healthy because he is temperate. 4. Your 
patient will die, unless she take medicine. 5. If he has promised 
he should act accordingly. 6. He was threatened with death, 
nevertheless he ventured. 7. Love not sleep, lest thou come to 
poverty. 8. Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth. 
9. Still, accidents will happen, unless the horses are gentle. 10. 
You should persevere, notwithstanding you meet with difficulties. 
11. George or John will go. 12. He denied that he circulated 
that report. 13. Except ye repent, ye will likewise perish. 14. 
To see thy glory, as I have seen thee in the sanctuary. 15. I will 
go, provided you accompany me. 16. I will attend, although I am 
fatigued. 17. Except ye abide in the ship, ye cannot be saved. 18. 
He drank poison, therefore he must die. 19. I will go, though it 
rain. 20. I shall be silent, since you disregard my words. 21. You 
need not hope for favor, till you give proof of your penitence. 22. 
If music be the food of love, play on. 23. I will pardon when you 
submit. 24. I will not pardon before you submit. 25. You must 
be patient, as I have others to attend to. 26. I shall not yield 
while you are so perverse. 27. They affirmed the fact, hence I be- 
lieve it. 28. Man wants but little here below, nor wants that 
little long. 29. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 30. 
He is good, therefore he is happy. 31. They kneeled before they 
fought. 32. She came home after John returned. 33. I saw 
James where Henry had left him. 34. As ye journey, sweetly sing. 
35. I will go wherever you send me. 
4 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PAKT III. 
NUMBER OF NOUNS. 

112. Obs. Nouns ending in o preceded by a 
vowel, or in o pronounced like oo in too, form the 
plural by adding s; as, folio, folios ; nuncio, nuncios ; 
two, twos. 

113. Obs. Nouns ending in o not preceded by a 
vowel, nor in o pronounced like oo in too, generally 
form the plural by adding es ; as, hero, heroes. 

Give the plural of 
Negro, wo, cargo, potato, musquito, veto. 

114. Obs. The following foreign nouns, though 
ending in o not preceded by a vowel, form the plural 
by adding s; as, canto, cantos; thus, cento, junto, 
solo, tyro, grotto, portico, halo, quarto, octavo, 
duodecimo, memento, zero, Cato, Cicero, Pedro. 

115. Obs. The following fifteen nouns form the 
plural by changing the terminations/ andye intones; 
as, beef, beeves; calf, calves; elf, elves; half, halves; 
leaf, leaves ; loaf, loaves; self, selves; sheaf, sheaves ; 
shelf, shelves ; thief, thieves ; wharf, wharfs or 
wharves ; wolf, wolves ; life, lives ; knife, knives ; 
wife, wives. 

Note 27 — Nouns Ending in F and FE. 

Nearly all the grammar authors give the Rule : " Nouns ending 
in / and fe form the plural by changing these terminations into 
ves." Now, by investigation, it may be readily seen that the fifteen 
words above mentioned do not of themselves constitute a rule, but 
are, indeed, only so many specific exceptions to the general rule, 
as all other words ending mforfe form the plural by adding s. 

The following nouns, ending in / or fe, forming their plurals 
regularly, are only a few of the many examples that might be cited 
as exceptions to the rule alluded to ; viz., grief, relief, reproof, 
chief, dwarf, gulf, kerchief, handkerchief, hoof, proof, roof, scarf, 
surf, turf, mischief, belief, misbelief, bas-relief, brief, fief, clef, semi- 
bref, oaf, waif, coif, woof, calif, wharf, fife, strife, safe, staff, flagstaff, 
skiff, stuff, gaff, muff. 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. 75 

116. Rem. — Staff, a walking stick, changes ff into ves ; as, staff, 
staves ; but staff, a military term, forms the plural regularly by 
adding s only ; as, staff, staffs. The compounds of staff also form 
the plural regularly. 

617. Obs. Some compounds form the plural by 
postfixing s to the first part ; as, court-martial, 
courts-martial; father-in-law, iathers-in-law; mother- 
in-law, brother-in-law, uncle-in-law, son-in-law, aid- 
de-camp, knight-errant, cousin-german, commander- 
in-chief, looker-on. 

118. Obs. Most of the other compounds form the 
plural regularly ; as, Ave-Maria, Ave-Marias ; came- 
ra-obscura, fellow-servant, out-pouring, mouse-trap, 
queen-consort, Jack-a-dandy, jack-a-lantern, piano- 
forte. 

119. Rem. — The plural of aid-de-camp is sometimes formed regu- 
larly by adding s to the last part ; as, aid-de-camps. 

120. Obs. In such compounds as coachful, hand- 
ful, spoonful, cupful, pailful, etc., when quantity 
or number is the idea, add s to the first part ; as, 
" They had three coachesful ;" " The doctor gave 
him two spoonsful." But to denote the manner, add 
s to the last part of the compound ; as, " Those who 
are carried down in coachfuls, to Westminster Hall." 
— Addison. " These drops are given by spoonfuls." 

121. Rem. — A few compounds pluralize both parts; as, man- 
servant, men-servants. Usage is by no means uniform in plural- 
izing compounds. 

122. Obs. Some nouns of the singular form may 
be either singular or plural, according to the idea to 
be imparted; as, deer, sheep, head, swine, fish, trout, 
salmon, carp, perch, cannon, shot, sail, fleet, dozen, 
score, brace, couple, pair, hundred, thousand, ver- 
min, rest. 

123. Rem. — Many of these also take the plural form ; as, fish 
fishes ; brace, braces ; dozen, dozens. 



76 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



124. Obs. Some nouns, though of the singular 
form, are of the plural number ; as, people, man- 
kind, nobility, hose, horse, foot, infantry, cavalry 

125. Rem. — The last observation applies to nouns of multitude 
not taken collectively ; but some nouns of multitude taken collect- 
ively, meaning only one collection, are in the singular number,..and, 
consequently, may take the plural form ; as, army, armies ; nation, 
nations. 

126. Obs. Some nouns of the plural form may 
be either singular or plural, according to the idea ; 
as, means, amends, pains, odds. 

127. Obs. Some nouns, though of the plural 
form, are of the singular number ; as, news, sum- 
mons, gallows, corps, molasses. 

128. Rem. — The following are more generally plural ; as, pains, 
riches, wages. 

Pluralize the nouns in 

Exercise 44. 

Scipio, tomato, quarto, octavo, leaf, half, thief, life, knife, wife, 
staff, flagstaff, gulf, fife, hoof, sister-in-law, aunt-in-law, daughter-in- 
law, fellow-servant, ingathering, handful, mouthful, deer, sheep, 
hose, laity, clergy, corps, news, means, riches, wages, man-servant, 
cameo, inch, monarch, sex, box, sky, lay, brother, die, iron, morass, 
embryo, virago, tyro, alderman, index, foot, ox, dormouse, muff, 
roof, coach, loss, relay, booby, mother-in-law, aid-de-camp, queen- 
consort, hundred, thousand, city, lady, bamboo, stiletto, scarf, glass, 
punctilio,cliff, wharf, folly, tattoo, distaff, compass, mattress, amends, 
Tully, Livy, tornado, gipsy, eloquence, drugs, apparatus, genus, 
genius, proboscis, seraglio, cuckoo, attorney, woman-servant, 
maid-servant, man-trap, pailful." 





DESCRIPTIVES. 






Exercise 45. 




POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


Bad, ill, or evil, 


worse, 


worst. 


Far, 


farther, further, 


farthest, furthest, 


Fore, 


former, 


foremost, first. 


Good, 


better, 


best. 


Late, 


later, latter, 


latest, last. 


Little, 


less, 


least. 



DEFECTIVES. 77 

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

Near, nearer, nearest, next. 

Old, older, elder,* oldest, eldest. 

Equal, superior, •_ supreme, chief. 

Unequal, inferior. 

129. Rem. — * Elder and eldest are applied only to persons ; but 
older and oldest may be applied to either persons or things. 

Having thoroughly studied the preceding exercise, select, 
tell the degree, and compare the descriptives in 

Exercise 46. 

1. Good men pay their honest debts. 2. That is the best and 
most effectual method of teaching' grammar. 3. Charlemagne was 
the tallest, the handsomest, and the strongest man of his time. — 
Stories of France, p. 19. 4. A little learning is dangerous. 5. 
Bad boys do evil things. 6. Worse men are not easily found. 
7. My parents have gone to the far West. 8. Your little child is 
quite ill. 9. The fore part is better than the last part. 10. Those 
old people are my near neighbors. 

DEFECTIVES. 
Q. May all descriptives be compared? 

130. A. Some descriptives, owing to the nature 
of their meaning, are not susceptible of comparison ; 
others want one or more of the degrees, such are 
called defectives; as, round, square, triangular, infi- 
nite, immortal, right, wrong, daily, present, absent, 
honest, etc. 

131. Rem. — Nouns used to describe nouns become descriptives, 
but are not compared ; as, cotton cloth, flax thread, silver knives, 
gold coin, corn field, horse-shoe, cow-hide, etc. 

132. Rem. — Descriptives showing the materials of which things 
are made are not compared ; as, wooden, woolen, brazen. 

133. Rem. — Descriptives formed by a composition of two or 
more words are not compared ; as, blue-eyed Minerva ; silver- 
footed maid ; hydra-headed monster. 

134. Rem. — Some descriptives are defective, wanting a form for 
the positive ; as, after, aftmost or aftermost ; hither, hithermost ; 
nether, nethermost ; under, undermost ; upper, uppermost ; in- 
ner, innermost or inmost. 

135. Rem, — Some descriptives want the comparative ; as, front 
or fr outmost ; rear or rearmost ; head or headmost. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

136. Rem. — Some descriptives are used only in the comparative 
degree ; as, anterior, exterior, interior, junior, major, minor, poste- 
rior, prior, senior, ulterior, etc. 

137. Rem. — Some descriptives, having in themselves a super- 
lative signification, do not admit a comparison ; as, omnipotent, 
omnipresent, boundless, endless, universal, chief, extreme, etc. 

138. Rem. — Descriptives are often united in composition with 
nouns ; as, mid, mid-sea ; after, after-ages. 

139. Obs. Descriptives often qualify nouns un- 
derstood. 

140. Obs. A descriptive may qualify an idea ex- 
pressed by a phrase or sentence ; as, "To see is plea- 
sant ;" " To ride is more agreeable than to walk." 

141. Obs. Descriptives frequently become nouns ; 
as, " God rewards the good, but punishes the bad ;" 
11 The virtuous are the most happy." 

Having read the preceding remarks very carefully , 
point out and parse the defectives in 
Exercise 47. 

1. The richest treasure mortal times afford, is spotless repu- 
tation. 2. The late washed grass looks green. 3. A round ball. 
4. A triangular figure. 5. Through infinite space. 6. The 
Czar of Eussia has supreme power. 7. Gen. Quitman had the 
chief command. 8. Benjamin had the silver cup. 9. Iron bars 
are made for prying or digging. 10. An evening school might be 
profitable. 11. I attend the grammar school. 12. The teacher 
has a mahogany chair. 13. That farmer cultivates meadow ground. 
14. That pole is perpendicular. 15. He preserves a horizontal 
line. 16. To calumniate is detestable. 17. To be blind is un- 
fortunate. 18. To be a coward is disgraceful. 

142. Obs. Place the descriptive according to the 
idea intended; as, "Mary wishes a black spool of 
thread." Sav, Mary wishes a spool of black thread, 
Obs. 142. 

Correct the errors in 

Exercise 48. 

1. Boy, bring me a cool pitcher of water. 2. Sir, hand me a 
drink of cool water. 3. A new barrel of flour was sold. 4. My 
friend has a clear spring of water. 5. My servant bought a green 
load of wood for a new pair of boots. 6. I see you have a fine 



COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE DEGREES. 79 

field of corn. 7. I wish I had a glass of good milk. 8. Have you 
any white ladies' stockings, sir ? 9. No : I have some black ladies' 
stockings. 

Rule 10. 

The Comparative degree compares an individual 
or class with another individual or different class. 

Model 10. 
"Which of those two cords is the strongest?" 
Say, Which of those two cords is the stronger ? R. 
10. As only two cords are compared. 

Correct the errors^ and compare and parse the descri])- 
tiues, in 

Exercise 49. 

1. This is the weakest of the two. 2. He is the strongest of 
the two, but not the wisest. 3. Wisdom is better than jewels. 
4. Solomon was the wisest of the Roman kings. 5. Pray, consider 
us, in this respect, as the weakest sex. — Spectator, No. 533. 6. The 
vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul than any 
other. 

143. Rem. — The superlative is sometimes used in comparing two 
individuals or classes, when we wish to make strong or emphatic 
expressions ; as, " Deborah, my dear, give each of those two boys 
a lump of sugar, and let Dick's be the largest, because he spoke 
first." — Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield. " Of the two, the 
English system is the safest" — Humphrey. " The largest of the 
two was cut loose." — Cooper. . " Both of these opinions have the 
sanction of high authority, and it may be worth while to examine 
which of them be wisest." — N. A. Review. " I think the English 
one the best of the two." — Lockhart. See Wells's Gram., p. 146. 

Rule 11. 
The Superlative degree compares an individual or 
class with two or more individuals or classes of the 
same kind. 

Model 11. 
" He chose the latter of these three." Say, He 
chose the last of these three, R. 11. As one is here 
compared with two others, the superlative, not the 
comparative, should be used. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exercise 50. 

1. I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three. 
2. Trisyllables are accented on the former syllable. 3. Eve was 
the prettier of women. 4. Which is the more remarkable isthmus 
in the world ? 5. Solomon was wiser than the Hebrew kings. 

Rule 12. 

Double comparatives and superlatives should not 
be used. 

144. Rem. — Double comparatives and superlatives are avoided, 
because they add nothing to the sense. 

Model 12. 

" He found seven others more worse than him- 
self." Say, He found seven others worse than 
himself, E. 12. 

81 The best and most wisest men often meet with 
discouragements." Say, The best and wisest men, 
etc., R. 12. Most is omitted to avoid the double 
superlative. 

Correct the errors, also parse the descriptives, defini- 
tives, and adverbs, in 

Exercise 51. 

1. A more healthier place cannot be found. 2. The lesser weight 
it carries, the faster it runs. 3. Stealing is the worstest practice 
that a boy can follow. 4. Some of the most wisest of the senators 
did the same. 5. He showed an easier and more agreeable way. 
6. This was the most convincing and plainest argument. 7. The 
Most Highest hath created us for his glory and our own happi- 
ness. 

Promiscuous examples involving the preceding six rules. 

Exercise 52. 

1. They were seen wandering about solitarily and depressed. 
2. Do not treat me so cold. 3. I don't know nothing about it. 
4. William was the tallest of the two. 5. He is the wiser of all 
mankind. 6. I never saw a more happier man than Henry. 7. Do 
you observe how beautifully that lady looks ? 8. I wish to know 
whether he will go or no ? 9. Precept nor discipline is not so 
forcible as example. 10. Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. 



CASE. 81 

11. Profane swearing is of all vices more inexcusable. 12. Julia 
is the most mildest girl I ever saw before. 

Note 28— Case. 

What is Case ? " In grammar, the inflection of nouns, or a 
change of termination, (Fr. cas ; L. casus"). — Webster. 

" Cases are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns 
and pronouns to others." — G. Brown. 

Many authorities might be quoted to show that Webster and 
G. Brown have given correct definitions of case ; and, I presume, 
few would have the hardihood to require additional authority. I 
would, however, quote L. Murray's definition of case ; but I have 
been unable to find it. He was kind enough to give us definitions 
of noun, gender, number, person ; but why has he not given a 
definition of case? "Mr. Murray could find nothing in our 
language which he could denominate case — hence he has made no 
attempt to define case." — J. Brown's Appeal, p. 387. I wish 
you not only to observe the definitions of case as given by many of 
the highest authorities among English Lexicographers and 
Grammarians ; but I will also cite your attention to the meaning 
of case, as found in the grammars of other languages, both ancient 
and modern. Latin has six variations, or changes of termina- 
tions, and six cases. Greek has five variations, and five cases. 
German has four cases, founded on the variations of its defini- 
tives [articles]. The Spanish philologists give nouns five cases, 
depending on their definitives [articles] . Hebrew nouns, having 
no variation, consequently have no case. " The Celtic philologists, 
like those of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, define case 
to be the change which nouns undergo at the beginning or end, to 
denote their relation to other words." — See Connellan's Gram., 
p. 27. 

So, the use of case, in all languages, ancient and modern, 
sustains Webster and G. Brown in defining case to mean a change 
of termination ; but as neither nouns, nor any class of words con- 
nected with them, undergo any such change, if the so-called pos- 
sessive case is not a noun, how can there be any propriety or ad- 
vantage in assigning English nouns, cases ? If case means a 
change of termination, how can there be any more cases than 
changes of termination ? The following italicized words are said to 
be nouns in the possessive case ; as, " I have a Senator's knife ;" 
" John owns one of Rodgers's razors ;" " Murray's grammar 
belongs to Emma." It must be obvious to any child's mind, that 
Senator's, Rodgers's, and Murray's are not the possessors of the 
articles just enumerated — they are not the name3 of anything ; but 
are evidently used to point out the names of different things ; 
consequently, they are not nouns, but definitives. If these 
4* 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

words are not nouns, what nouns can claim case, as these are the 
only kind that have any change in the termination. Case, as we 
have seen, consists in the change of termination, consequently, 
where there is no change of termination, there can be no case. 
The so-called nominative and objective cases are not distinguished 
by the slightest change of termination. 

These criticisms might be extended to an indefinite length, but 
it is obviously unnecessary, as simple attention to this point must 
suffice to discover its utter absurdity. It must be plain that I, 
John, and Emma are possessors of the articles spoken of; and 
should these words be considered possessive cases ? It is remark- 
able, however, that I and John are in the nominative case, 
while Emma is in the objective case. 

From Gr. Brown's definition of case, it must be readily seen that 
the term relation, used by us as a substitute for case, "is not only 
less objectionable, but much more expressive of the office of the 
words under consideration. 

Note 29 — Nominative and Objective Oases. 

Oase has been defined to be a change of termination, though 
this change can be claimed only for the possessive case, which, I 
trust, I have successfully proven not to be a noun, but a defini- 
tive. It is next for us to inquire concerning the nominative and 
objective cases. "John struck William, or William struck John." 
Here you observe, that John, in the first sentence, is said to be in 
the nominative case ; but, in the second sentence, John is in the 
objective case. Why this difference in case ? " Case is a change 
of termination." But no change of termination takes place in the 
word John. If case and change of termination mean the same 
thing, how can there be a distinction of case, there being no 
difference of termination ? A distinction without a difference. 

Again, case is often defined to be the state or condition, posi- 
tion or situation, which nouns have to other words in the same 
sentence. " We say of an animal, for instance a horse, when he is 
fat, that he is in a good case ;" and, when he is lean, that " he is in 
a bad case ;" what, therefore, does the word case mean ? " Case 
means condition, state," etc. — R. C. Smith, p. 10. What has the 
state or condition of a fat or lean horse to do with the relation 
which one word bears to another in the same sentence ? Is this 
comparison the least illustrative of the office of words ? 

If case means the state or condition, position or situation, of 
nouns, how shall these cases be distinguished? By the terms 
Nominative and Objective cases ? Two cases only ! Will these 
comprise the various states or conditions, positions or situations, of 
things ? Nominative, from nomino, means to name ; hence, when a 
noun is in the nominative case, it is in the state or condition, 



NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE CASES. 83 

position or situation, of being named ; bat is this not equally true 
of all nouns ? " John struck William, 7 ' John is said to be in the 
nominative case, i. e., the state, etc., of being named. But is not 
William named also ? When is a noun in the objective case ? 
"When it is acted upon." "William was struck by John." 
Which is the objective case in this example ? " John." Is John 
in the state or condition of being acted upon ? " No : but John is 
in the objective case, governed by the preposition by." If John 
is not acted upon, who is? William was acted upon, of course, 
when he was struck by John. Then is William in the objective 
case ; you say that the objective case is the state or condition of 
being acted upon ? •' No : William is in the nominative case to the 
verb was struck, although he was the one acted upon ; for this is 
the way we parse it in our grammars, though it does not seem to 
be in accordance with the sense." 

Case cannot mean position ; for the so-called cases have no 
fixed places in the sentence ; as, " Jane is a good girl ; and such 
girls we admire." Jane and girl are both nominatives, yet Jane 
stands before the verb is, while girl stands after the same verb. 
Girls is objective case, though standing before the verb admire, 
which governs it in the objective case. If case means position, 
why not say nominative and objective positions ? It is evident that 
the relations which words bear to each other in English are not 
distinguished by any change of termination, much less by their 
position. 

L. Murray says, " The nominative case simply expresses the name 
of a thing, or the subject of a verb." Let us inquire into the second 
paft of this definition, u or the subject of the verb." What does 
Mr. Murray mean by the subject of the verb ? In syntax, he says, 
" The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of." Is the nominative 
distinguishable from the objective case, by being spoken of ? Is 
not the noun in the objective case also spoken of, as often as it is 
in the nominative case ? Again, if a word is nominative because 
spoken of, words of the first and second persons must be excluded 
from the nominative case. Words of the first person are not 
spoken of, but are the names of the persons speaking. Those of 
the second person are not spoken of, being spoken to ; consequently 
this definition of Murray's excludes all nouns and pronouns from 
the nominative case, but those that may chance to be of the third 
person. 

We are told by R. C. Smith and others, that " The nominative 
case is the agent, actor, or doer.'' " Peter was struck by William." 
Which is the nominative in this sentence ? " Peter is the nomi- 
native to the verb was struck." Is Peter the agent, actor, or 
doer ?^ "No : William is the doer, as he struck Peter." What case, 
then, is William, as he is the actor ? " William is in the objective 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

case, governed by the preposition by." You seem to contradict 
yourself. You say the nominative case is the actor ; yet William, the 
actor, is put in the objective case, while Peter, the one acted upon, 
is put by you in the nominative case. The nominative case being 
the agent, actor or doer, what did Peter do ? " Peter was struck 
by William." " I don't know unless he hollowed.'* Enough to 
make Peter or any other boy hollow, to be taught such stuff. 

RELATION. — Relation of Nouns and Pronouns 
[See Notes 16, 28, 29.] 
Q. What is Relation in grammar ? 

145. A. Eelation is that reference which nouns 
and pronouns have to other words in the same sen- 
tence. 

Q. How many relations have nouns and pronouns ? 

146. A. Nouns and pronouns have two relations 
— subject and object. 

Q. How may the subject be known ? 

147. A. The subject is the leading noun or pro- 
noun, and governs the verb in number and person ; 
as, "Susan studies well, and she learns finely." 

Q. How may the object be known ? 

148. A. The object is a noun or pronoun go- 
verned by any other word ; as, " John struck Annie 
and me;" " Give the book to him" 

DIVISION OP PRONOUNS. 
Q. How many kinds of pronouns, and what are they ? 

149. A. Pronouns may be divided into two kinds 
— simple and compound. 

Q. Which are the simple pronouns ? 

150. A. The simple pronouns are I, thou, you, he, 
she, it, who, that, which. 

VARIATION, OR DECLENSION, OF THE SIMPLE PRONOUNS. 
Exercise 53. 

SUBJECT. . OBJECT. SUBJECT. OBJECT. 

Singular I, me; Singular She, her; 

Plural we, us. Plural they, them. 



RELATION OF PRONOUNS. 



85 





SUBJECT. OBJECT. 


SUBJECT. 


OBJECT. 


Singular 


Thou,* thee; 


Singular It, 


it; 


Plural 


ye or you, you. 


Plural they, 


them. 


Singular 


You, you ; 


Singular Who, 


whom ; 


Plural 


you, you. 


Plural who, 


whom. 


Singular 


He, him ; 






Plural 


they, them. 








Note 30- 


-You, Singular. 





• *' B may be remarked, once for all, that thou and ye are the 
second person used in the sacred style ; and, sometimes, in other 
grave discourses. In all other cases, you is the second person of 
the singular number, as well as of the plural. It is not one of the 
most trivial absurdities which the student must now encounter at 
every step, in the study of English grammar, that he meets with 
you in the plural number only, though he finds it the representative 
of an individual." — Webster's Gram., p. 60. 

RELATION OF PRONOUNS. 

Q. Having seen that pronouns correspond with their nouns in gender, 
number, and person ; how are the relations of pronouns determined ? 

151. A. The relations of pronouns are determined 
by their forms, or by their offices or uses in the sen- 
tence ; as, " The man is happy who lives virtuously ;" 
11 The girl whom I saw perished;" " You act your 
part well, and our country will reward you." 

Give the relation, of 

I, me, we, us, thou, thee, you, ye, he, him, she, her, they, them, 
who, whom. 

152. Obs. Subjects should have the form of sub- 
jects. 

Model 13. 
" His wealth and him bid adieu to each other." 
Say, His wealth and he bid adieu to each other, 
Obs. 152. 

Point out the subjects, and correct the errors inform, in 

Exercise 54. 

1. Who goes there ? Me. 2. Him that is studious will improve. 
3. Who broke this slate ? Me. 4. Who walked with the ladies ? 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

My brother and him. 5. You and us enjoy man^ privileges. 6. I 
thought you and them had become friends. 7. Whom shall be 
sent to admonish them ? 8. She and me are of the same age. 9. 
Who will accompany us to the country ? Her and me. 10. Him 
and me are able to go. 11. Who gave John those books ? Her. 
12. Them and us read rapidly yesterday. « 

As Grammars usually divide pronouns into Personal, Relative, 
Adjective, and Interrogative, lest this grammar should be consid- 
ered deficient in not observing these partitions ; it may be neces- 
sary to institute some inquiry as to the nature, propriety, and 
advantage of these subdivisions. 

Note 31 — Personal Pronouns. 

" There are five Personal Pronouns ; viz., I, thou, he, she, it ; 
with their plurals, we, ye or you, they/' — Murray's Gram., p. 43. 
Why should these pronouns be distinguished as personal pronouns ? 
It is to be regretted that Mr. Murray did not condescend to en- 
lighten us on this question. Let us hear how Noah Webster un- 
derstood our grammars, in reference to this division. Speaking of 
pronouns, he said : " Substitutes or pronouns are of two kinds ; 
those which are used in the place of the names of persons only, and 
may be called personal. * * * * The pronouns which are appro- 
priate to persons, are, I, thou, you, he, she, me, ye, and who." — 
Webster's Gram., p. 24. Are he, she, and it personal, because 
they are used in the place of the names of persons, human beings, 
only ? Do not he and she as often stand for dumb brutes, as for 
intelligent human beings ? as, " Mind that horse, lest he throw 
you ;" " The cow is a noble animal, she gives milk," etc. Here, 
he stands for horse ; she, for cow, where is the propriety in calling 
them personal ? Are horse and cow to be considered persons, to 
reconcile the absurdities in our grammars ? 

The pronoun it may stand for any brute, or inanimate thing ; yet 
it must be called a p£rsonal pronoun, though not standing for a 
person. 

Why so ? li Who is applied to persons only."— Bullions's 
Gram., p. 50. Is who a personal pronoun, Mr. Bullions? " 
no ! Who is not a personal pronoun. Who is a relative pronoun, 
because it relates to an antecedent." Don't the so-called personal 
pronouns relate to an antecedent ? tl Yes, yes, but our grammars 
call them personal, anyhow ; and who, which, and that, relative." 
This is rather strange ! It is personal, though not standing for a 
person, yet xoho, never standing for any but intelligent beings, is 
not personal ! Well may Mr. Kirkham have remarked, that 
" what is false in fact may nevertheless be true in grammar." 

But some apologists for this most glaring contradiction, not be- 
ing so candid as Kirkham ; but, more ingenious than consistent, 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 87 

would have us think that Noah Webster, the great lexicographer, 
did not understand the application of the tenn personal, in grammar. 

Let us hear Gould Brown, the author of the Grammar of Gram- 
mars, p. 284 : u A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows by 
its form of what person it is." If it is important to call he, she, 
and it personal, because they, by their form, denote the third per- 
son, may it not be equally important to call he and she sexual pro- 
nouns, because these words, by their forms, distinguish the sexes ? 
These words, also, by their forms, mark the number ; and should 
they accordingly be called numeral pronouns ? I am unable to 
appreciate the necessity of the one more than the other. 

I am unconscious of any reason, propriety, or advantage in this 
distinction of pronouns. 

G. Brown elegantly remarks, that " In grammar, all needless 
distinctions are reprehensible." " Physician heal thyself.*' 

Note 32 — Relative Pronouns. 

" Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, to some word 
or phrase going before, which is thence called the antecedent ; they 
are, who, which, and that ; as, " The man is happy who lives virtu- 
ously." — Murray's Gram., p. 45. Are who, which, and that the 
only words that relate to antecedents ? Do not he, she, it, and 
all the so-called personal pronouns invariably relate to an antece- 
dent ? In the sentence, " The man is happy, because he lives vir- 
tuously," does not he relate to man as its antecedent as much as 
who in the example cited by Murray ? If so, is not he a relative ? 
" No ! no ! no !" Why not ? The grammars say, u he is a personal 
pronoun, but who is a relative pronoun." " The grammars say 
so." This reminds me of the child's reason — so, " Case 'tis so \" 
Webster's Gram., p. 26, tells us, u Who is called a relative, because 
it relates to an antecedent." But this is also true of he, she, they, 
and most of the substitutes. They all relate to the words which 
they represent. Webster classes who with he, she, it, etc. To 
say that certain pronouns are relative, because they relate to an 
antecedent — a property common to all — is to make the generic char- 
acter constitute the specific difference. Is this scientific ? Is it 
logical ? Any new department of learning involving such a palpa- 
ble incongruity would be a burlesque on science — an insult to the 
understanding. 

Hear Kirkham on relative pronouns, p. 114 : li Truth and sim- 
plicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in hand. The fore- 
going exposition of the ' relative pronouns' is in accordance with 
the usual method of treating them ; but, if they were unfolded ac- 
cording to their true character, they would be found to be very 
simple, and, doubtless, much labor and perplexity, on the part of 
the learner, would thereby be saved." 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

If so, why did Mr. Kirkham treat them " in accordance with 
the usual method?' if, to unfold them according to their true char- 
acter would render them so very simple, and, doubtless, save much 
labor and perplexity on the part of the learner ? Why not render 
them simple ? " Truth and simplicity are twin sisters," etc. 
Curious that he should forget this so soon. Why not save the 
labor and perplexity on the part of the learner ? Why not unfold 
them according to their true character, and not according to the 
usual method, if so much is to be gained ? 

Take the next sentence in Kirkham's Gram. : " Of the words 
called * relatives/ who, only, is a pronoun ; (then why call the 
rest pronouns ?) " and this is strictly personal ; more so, indeed, if 
we except 1" and we, than any other word in our language ; for it is 
always restricted to persons." If this is true, and who would 
question it, why exclude who from the list of personal pronouns ? 
" It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. J, thou, he, 
she, it, we, ye, you, and they relate to antecedents, as well eiswho." 
If who ought to be classed with the personal pronouns, why did 
Mr. K. not class it with them ? " Which, that, and what are al- 
ways adjectives. They never stand for, but always belong to, 
nouns either expressed or implied." If these words are always 
adjectives, why should Mr. K. dare to call them pronouns ? The 
same author tells us, on p. 105, that " Pronouns and adjectives are 
totally distinct in their character," yet here he strangely confounds 
one class with the other. To separate who from other pronouns 
relating to antecedents, is to make a distinction without a differ- 
ence. Such useless, groundless, and absurd subdivisions seem 
only to fetter and perplex the teacher — to confuse and embarrass 
the pupil. 

Note 33 — Interrogative Pronouns. 

" Who, which, and what, when used in asking questions, are call- 
ed Interrogative Pronouns ; as, " Who is there ?" " Which will you 
take ?" " What did he say ?"— Bullions's Gram., p. 54. 

Are who, which, and what the only interrogative words ? Are 
these words, by any means, peculiarly or exclusively interrogative ? 
When I say, " Can Mr. Bullions answer these questions affirma- 
tively ?" do I not ask a question ? Yet I have not used any of the 
so-called interrogative pronouns. " Shall I go ?" The pronoun I 
is used in this question, why not as well call I an interrogative pro- 
noun ? Here, you perceive, I am constantly asking questions, yet 
I am not constantly using the so-called interrogatives : " Is he 
well ?" "Are you sick of needless divisions in grammar ?" "Am I 
to learn grammar from vague definitions ?" "Are we to be disgust- 
ed by servility to authors?" "Are they all plagiarists?" If who, 
which, and what are interrogative pronouns, because used in ask- 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 89 

ing questions, why should not all the pronouns in the preceding 
questions be called interrogatives ? Can't a sentence be interro- 
gative without the use of a pronoun of any character ? This sen- 
tence itself is an example. Does the verb ask the question ? If 
so, we should often have two questions in the same sentence. I 
rather think the interrogation is effected by the position of the 
words in the sentence, or by a peculiar emphasis ; as, " Is he sick ?" 
— I ask a question. " He is sick." — An affirmation is made. 

Note 34 — Adjective Pronouns. 

What is an adjective pronoun ? Define the term. "Adjective, 
from the Latin adjectus, means added to. Pronoun, derived from 
the two Latin words pro, for, and nomen, a name, signifies to stand 
for, or in the place of, a name or noun." 

Give us one or two specimens of adjective pronouns ? " This 
book ;" " That paper." As this and that are added to book and 
paper, I readily admit there is some propriety in the application 
of the term adjective ; but as this and that do not stand in the 
place of the nouns, book and paper, in what respect are this and 
that pronouns, or even similar to pronouns ? I must confess, that 
I am at no little loss to comprehend the nature of an adjective 
pronoun — how the same word can be an adjective, that is added 
to a noun ; and, at the same time, be a pronoun, standing in the 
place of a noun — the same word accupying two different places at 
the same time. Philosophy lays down the axiom, that two bodies 
cannot occupy the same space at the same time. Is it not equally 
self-evident that the same word cannot occupy two different places 
at the same time ? What could be more absurd ? 

From this discrepancy, it would seem that some of our gram- 
marians have not studied the philosophers ; or, otherwise, the philo- 
sophers have unfortunately omitted to consult the grammarians. 

See Kirkham's Gram., p. 105 : " Adjective Pronouns, 
Pronominal Adjectives, or, more properly, specifying Ad- 
jectives, are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by 
some distinct specification." The same author further and 
immediately remarks, " Pronouns and adjectives are totally 
distinct in their character. The former stand for nouns, and 
never belong to them ; the latter belong to nouns, and never 
stand for them. Hence, such a thing as an adjective pronoun 
cannot exist. Each, every, either, this, that, some, other, and 
the residue, are pure adjectives." If each, every, etc., as well as 
the residue, are pure adjectives, why class them with adjective 
pronouns ? Should not every word be parsed accordfng to its 
use ? From the first part of this extract, one would think that 
Kirkham decidedly preferred specifying Adjectives, especially as 
it is more properly used than the terms, Adjective Pronouns and 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Pronominal Adjectives ; but, strange to say, he constantly em- 
ploys the term adjective pronoun in his lectures, parsing, and 
rules. — See Rule 19. " Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, ex- 
pressed or understood." Notwithstanding all this, he says, " Such 
a thing as an adjective pronoun cannot exist." If so, why should 
Kirkham, or any of his followers, longer use the term ? 

Some grammarians insist on calling that an adjective pronoun, 
or pronominal adjective, because that is a pronoun when it stands 
for a noun ; but that often connects sentences. Now, according to 
the reasoning just alluded to, if that pointing out a noun should 
be called a pronominal adjective, or adjective pronoun, because it 
is sometimes a pronoun, might we not, with equal propriety, call 
that a pronominal, or adjective conjunction, when used to connect 
sentences ? Nonsense ! 

If that added to a noun may be called an adjective pronoun, or 
pronominal adjective, because it is sometimes a pronoun, what 
should that be called when standing for a noun, as it is also some- 
times an adjective — added to a noun ? I can't see but that there is 
as little propriety in calling that an adjective pronoun in one 
instance as in the other. il Though admitting this distinction be- 
tween articles and pronouns adjective, the writer is disposed to 
regard the whole as belonging to the same class. They all seem 
to define or limit, more or less particularly, the meaning of nouns. 
They may, therefore, be called Definitives." — Barnard's Gram., 
p. 106. 

Note 35 — The Articles and Pronouns Adjective. 

See Barnard's Gram., pp. 156, 106 : " By referring to part I., 
it will be seen that, under the general name definitives, we have 
iucluded — I. The articles, a or an, and the ; II. The demonstra- 
tives, this, that, these, and those ; III. The distributives, each, 
every, and either, with its opposite neither ; IV. The indefinites, 
some, other*, another, any. one, all, such, no, and none. 

See Butler's Gram., p. 32, for the following : " The limiting 
adjectives, each, every, either, neither, former, latter, some, other, 
any. one, all, such, none, this, that, and the plurial forms, these, 
those, are sometimes improperly called adjective pronouns.' 1 

The reason given for this is, that they sometimes belong to 
nouns like adjectives, and, at other times, stand for nouns like 
pronouns. 

Thus, in this sentence , " Each man has his faults," each limits 
the meaning of the noun man ; but, if man be omitted, it is said 
that each stands for man ; as, " Each has his faults." 

But it seems hardly correct to represent these adjectives as 
becoming pronouns, when the noun is omitted. Other adjectives 
might be called pronouns on the same grounds. 



DEFINITIVES. 91 

Thus, good might be called a pronoun in this sentence. " The 
good may err," because persons is omitted. " 

See Bullions's Gram., p. 39. He says, speaking of the division 
of adjectives, 5 : " Definitives, which do not express any property 
of an object, but merely point it out, or limit in various ways the 
meaning of the noun. To this class belong such words as this, 
that, each, every, some, both, etc. These sometimes accompany 
the noun, and sometimes refer to it understood, or stand instead of 
it, after the manner of pronouns, and hence are sometimes called 
Pronominal adjectives, and sometimes Adjective pronouns. 11 The 
same author again remarks on page 56 : " For the convenience of 
such as prefer to consider them pronominal adjectives, they are 
classed as definitives. " This is surely obliging ! but I don't see 
much convenience in the favor. To accommodate those preferring 
to call them pronominal adjectives by calling them definitives. 

Mr. Kirkham, on p. 70, remarks : * Some adjectives restrict 
or limit the signification of the nouns to which they are joined, and 
are, therefore, sometimes called definitives ; as, " one era, seven 
ages, the first man, the whole mass, no trouble, those men, that 
book, all regions." 

If these words restrict or limit the signification of nouns, as 
definitive means to restrict or limit, why not call them, as I have 
ventured to do, definitives, a term evidently more suggestive of 
their office ? " The words a or an, and the, are reckoned by some 
grammarians a separate part of speech ; but, as they, in all 
respects, come under the definition of the adjective, it is unneces- 
sary, as well as improper, to rank them as a class by themselves." — 
Connor. 

" A word used to define or limit the application of its noun, is a 
Specifying Adjective ; Examples — A, an, the, this, that, some, 
three, my." — S.W. Clark's Gram., p. 60. 

" Definitive adjectives are those which serve to define or limit 
the meaning of nouns or pronouns. These are an or a, the, one, 
two, three, etc., this, that, these, those, both, each, every, either, 
neither, some, other, any, one, all, such, much, many, none, same, 
few." — Weld's Gram., p. 38. 

DEFINITIVES. 

153. Rem. — The being used to point out things well known, or 
previously mentioned, whether one or more, near or distant, is a 
definitive ; as, " The boy here ;" "The boys in the street." 

154. Rem. — The cardinal numbers one, two, three, four, five, six, 
etc., being used to limit the number of persons or things, are defini- 
tives ; as, "Ten men ; twenty houses ; fifty horses," etc. 

155. Rem. — The ordinal numbers" first, second, third, fourth, 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

fifth, sixth, etc., used to point out the order of things, are defini- 
tives ; as, "The first man that came f " The second lady that re- 
tired." 

156. Rem. — A, an, each, every, either, neither, no, and any 
limiting things to the singular number, are definitives ; as, "A 
man, an inkstand, each woman, every boy, neither girl, either road, 
no paper, any book." 

157. Rem. — Which, what, former, latter, some, same, such, se- 
veral, all, much, many, few, other, another, you, both, and own 
pointing out or limiting nouns expressed or understood, are defini- 
tives ; as, " Which book ;" " What boy ;" " The former sum is 
greater than the latter amount ;" " Some boy did the same thing ;" 
"Such girls have several studies;'' "All men should do much 
work." 

158. Rem. — Particular names and titles become definitives ; as, 
u Franklin Pierce, Professor Goodrich, London manners, Miss 
Mary." 

159. Rem. — My, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, whose as 
well as mine and thine, when used to point out or limit nouns, are 
definitives. 

160. Rem. — My points out something belonging or pertaining 
to the first person singular ; our, to the first person plural ; as, my 
hat ; our hats. 

161. Rem. — Thy points out something belonging or pertaining 
to the second person singular ; your, to the second person singular 
or plural ; as ; " Thy father ; your parents ;" referring to the pa- 
rents of one, or more, according to the number of persons addressed. 

162. Rem. — His points out something belonging or pertaining 
to one of the masculine gender, third person ; as, " John took his 
book with him." 

163. Rem. — Her points out something belonging or pertaining 
to one of the feminine gender, third person ; as, "Mary remembers 
her aunt." 

164. Rem. — Its points out something belonging or pertaining 
to an inanimate thing, or animal undistinguished by gender, of the 
singular number, third person ; as, "Its mother ; its size." 

165. Rem- Their points out something belonging or pertaining 
to several persons, or inanimate things, irrespective of gender — 
of the third person. 

166. Rem. — Whose is used in asking questions, and points out 
something belonging or pertaining to a person or persons, without 
distinction of gender, number, or person. 

167. Rem. — Two or more definitives mutually dependent upon 
each other, pointing out the same thing, may be distinguished as 
helping and principal ; as "Peter's wife's mother;" "At his father- 
in-law* s residence ;" "Nearly every man was slain." 



COMPARISON OF DEFINITIVES. 93 

168. Obs. Place definitives according to the idea 
intended ; as, " The two first classes have read." Say, 
The first two classes have read. 

169. Rem. — "A man just passed the door," a, first, limits man 
to the singular number ; next, a points out man as a species, that 
is, a man, not a horse. 

"The man has a gun on his shoulder," the points out the 
particular man, far or near, previously spoken of, or alluded to. — 
See Barnard's Gram., p. 118. 

170. Obs. Avoid unnecessary definitives ; as, 
" Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord." Say, 
Asa's heart etc., leaving out his, as unnecessary. 
11 In the hearing many witnesses, much time was 
consumed." Say, In hearing, etc., the being un- 
necessary. 

COMPARISON OF DEFINITIVES. 

Exercise 55. 

pos. deg. com. deg. sup. deg. 

Few, fewer, fewest. 

Much, many,* more, most. 

Several, some, more, most. 

Some, less, least. 

* Many pertains to things that may be counted ; much, to things 
measured or weighed. 

Having read the preceding remarks attentively, men- 
tion or write all, and parse some, of the definitives, in 

Exercise 56. 

1. This book here and that desk yonder are my property. 2. 
These girls by my side behave well ; but those boys by your desk 
are very idle. 3. The tutor before us attends to his classes more 
punctually than the professors do to their classes. 4. No man 
escapes death. 5. Which book may I have ? 6. What means are 
necessary to our success ? 7. Whose slate is this in my hand. 8. 
Gen. Geo. Washington was the first President of the United States. 
9. Both offices are profitable. 10. The former sum is preferable to 
the latter amount. 11. Some animals burrow in the ground. 12. 
Such boys do not respect their parents properly. 13. John has 
one of Rodgers's knives. 14. Charles bought three boxes of Jayne's 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pills. 15. How do you like the Senator's knife? 16. Any man 
may succeed by working diligently. 17. Jane always obeys her 
mistress. 18. The pet squirrel loves its little master. 19. Mrs. 
Hentz is a distinguished poetess. 20. Mr. J. C. Calhoun was a 
great man. 21. Several were present. 22. He has that good old 
man's hat. 23. He came unto his own, and his own received him 
not. — John, i, 2, 24. For many shall come in my name, saying, 
"lam Christ," and shall deceive many. — Matt., xxiv, 5, 25. The 
merchant has shoes of almost any kind. 26. Let not thine enemies 
perish, let not mine enemies triumph. 27. The French General 
commands an army. 28. You may take either road at your pleasure. 

29. Jabal was the father of such as dwell in tents. — Gen., iv, 20. 

30. All that come into the tent, and all that are in the tent, shall 
be unclean seven days. — Num., 19, 14. 31. Brewer's yeast is bet- 
ter than baker's yeast. 32. Comstock has men's hats, boys' caps, 
and children's shoes for sale. 33. The English language is spoken 
by more then fifty five millions of men. 34. What students these 
are ! 35. Neither is filled, but neither of the offices will suit the 
candidate. 36. Don't do it for goodness' sake. 

CONJUGATION OP VERBS. 
Q. What do you mean by the Conjugation of verbs ? 

171. A. The Conjugation of a verb is the regu- 
lar formation and arrangement of its several tenses, 
numbers, and persons. 

172. Rem. — " There is but one Conjugation in English." — John 

Wesley. 

Conjugation of the regular verb love. 

Exercise 57. 

present tense. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I love, 1st Pers., We love, 

2d " You love, 2d " You love, 

3d " He loves; 3d " They love. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I loved, 1st Pers., We loved, 

2d " You loved, 2d " You loved, 

3d " He loved; 3d " They loved. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 95 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I shall or will love, 1st Pers., We shall or will love, 
2d " You shall or will love, 2d " You shall or will love, 
3d " He shall or will love ; 3d " They shall or will love. 

173. Rem. — When two verbs are employed to express the same 
action, the first is called the helping, the second the principal, verb. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, loving ; Perfect, loved ; Compound, having loved. 

174. Rem. — Verbs forming the past tense and the perfect par- 
ticiple by the addition of d or ed to the present are called regu- 
lar ; as. love, loved, loved ; but verbs not adding these letters are 
called irregular ; as. have, had, had ; am, was, been. 

As all regular verbs are conjugated like the verb 
" love" so write, or recite, the conjugation of the verbs in 

Exercise 58. 

Hate, lament, treat, repent, study, learn, recite, return, mourn, 
rejoice, depart, appear, approach, suppose, deceive, regard. 

Conjugation of the irregular verb have. 

Exercise 59. 

present tense. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I have, 1st Pers., We have, 

2d " You have, 2d " You have, 

3d " He has; 3d " They have. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I had, 1st Pers., We had, 

2d " You had, 2d " You had, 

3d " He had; 3d " They had. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I shall or will have, 1st Pers., We shall or will have, 

2d " You shall or will have, 2d •* You shall or will have, 

3d " He shall or will have; 3d " They shall or will have. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, having ; Perfect, had ; Compound, having had. 

Conjugation of the irregular verb am. 

Exercise 60. 

present tense. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I am, 1st Pers., We are, 

2d " You are, 2d " You are, 

3d " He is; 3d " They are. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I was, 1st Pers., We were, 

2d " You was,* were, 2d " You were, 
3d " He was; 3d « They were. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I shall or will be, 1st Pers., We shall or will be, 

2d " You shall or will be, 2d " You shall or will be, 
3d " He shall or will be ; 3d " They shall or will be. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, being ; Perfect, been ; Compound, having been. 

Note 36— You Was. 

* Hear what Webster says of you was. " As you was origin- 
ally in the plural number, grammarians insist that it must still be 
restricted to that number. But national usage rejects the arbi- 
trary principle. The true principle, on which all language is built, 
rejects it. What fundamental rule have we to dispose of words, 
but this, that when a word signifies one, or unity, it belongs to 
the singular number ? 

" If a word, once exclusively plural, becomes, by universal use, 
the sign of individuality, it must take its place in the singular num- 
ber. That this is a fact with you, is proved by universal usage. 
To assign the substitute to its verb, is to invert the order of things. 
The verb must follow its nominative (subject) — if that denotes 
unity, so does the verb." 

" When you was at Athens, you attended the schools of the phi- 
losophers. '* — Cicero, Tusc. Quest., Trans, b. 2. 



NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. 97 

"On that happy day when you was given to the world." — 
Dodd's Massillon, Serm. 1. 

" Unless you was ill." — Boswell's Life of J., u32., 68. 

" You was on the spot where your enemy was found killed." — 
Guthrie's Quinciilian, B. 2. 

<; When you was here comforting me." — Pope's Let. 

"I am as well as when you was here." — Gray's Let. to Swift 

" Why was you glad ?" — Boswell's Life of Johnson. 

" These writers did not commit mistakes in the use of the verb 
after you — they wrote the language as established by national 
usage — the foundation of all language. So is the practice in the 
United States — not merely popular usage, though this, when gene- 
ral, is respectable authority ; but the practice of men of letters." 

Webster quotes several other authorities, but I hope these cita- 
tions will be sufficient. 

Webster further remarks, " This use of was is from the Gothic 
dialect ; but it is primitive and correct." — See Webster's Gram., 
p. 25. 

NUMBER OF VERBS. 

175. Obs. Verbs always have the same numbers 
as their subjects. 

Point out the subjects, and correct the errors in the 
number of verbs, in 

Exercise 61. 

1. I are well. 2. They is gone. 3. They loves me. 4. How 
is your folks ? — A Governor. 5. All is well. 6. Elizabeth, do you 
know where them scissors is ? 7. Where is your clothes ? 

PERSON OF VERBS. 

176. Obs. Verbs have the same persons as their 
subjects. 

Point out the persons of the subjects, and correct the 
errors of the verbs in person, in 

I4XERCISE 62. 

1. You is a bad girl. 2. He am tired. 3. I are sick. 4. He 
learn well. 5. You learns better. 6. We is going to town. 7. 
They is too bad. 
5 



98 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



A List of Irregular Verbs. 

Section 1. 

[Explanation. Words followed by t are obsolescent ; $, obsolete ; 
R, regular through ; r, regular in that tense ; n, not correct ; p, pro- 
nounced]. 

177. Rem. — Words included in parentheses ( ) maybe omitted 
in recitations ; but the rest of this section should be thoroughly 
committed and often repeated : indeed, the words found in this sec- 
tion are very generally abused by the educated as well as the illiter- 
ate ; therefore, it is of special importance that pupils should be 
thoroughly drilled in them. 

Exercise 63. 

perfect participle. 
been (p. bin, n. ben, 
n. been), 
arisen (n. aris). 
awaked, 
beaten, beat, 
begun, 
bidden, bid. 
bitten, bit. 
blown. 

broken, broke, 
brought (n. brung). 
burst (n. busted), 
caught (n. ketched). 
chid, chidden, 
chosen, chose, 
cleaved, 
cleft, cloven, 
clothed, clad, 
come. 

crowed (n. crown), 
dared, 
dared, 
done, 
drawn. 

, driven, drove, 
drank, drunk, 
eat, eaten, 
fallen. 

fought (n. fit), 
flown. 

forgotten,forgot 
forsaken. 



PRESENT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


Am, 


was (n. was), 


Arise, 


arose, 


Awake, R. 


awoke, 


Beat, 


beat, 


Begin, 


began, 


Bid (for-), 


bid, bade, 


Bite, 


bit, 


Blow, R. 


blew, 


Break, 


broke (brake J), 


Bring, 


brought, 


Burst, R. (n. bust), 


burst, 


Catch, R. (n. ketch), 


caught (n. kotch), 


Chide, 


chid, 


Choose (n. chuse), 


chose (n. chosed), 


Cleave (to adhere), 


cleaved (clave J), 


Cleave (to split), 


cleft, clove, 


Clothe, R. 


clothed (clad J), 


Come (be-, over-), 


came, come, 


Crow, R. 


crowed, crew, 


Dare (to challenge), R. dared, 


Dare (to venture), 


durst, 


Do (un-, mis-, over-), 


did, 


Draw (with-), 


drew (n. drawed), 


Drive, 


drove (n. driv, drave %) 


Drink, 


drank, 


Eat, 


eat, ate (n. p. et), 


Fall (be-), 


fell, 


Fight, 
Fly, 

Forget (n. forgit), 


fought (n. fout), 
flew 


forgot (n. forgat $), 


Forsake, 


foresook (n. forsuck), 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



99 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Freeze, 
Forbear, 
Get (n. git), 
Give (for-, mis-), 
Go (fore-, under-), 
Grave (en-), E. 
Grow, 



TAST TENSE. 

froze, 

forbore, 

got (gat J), 

gave (n. giv), 

went, 

graved, 

grew (n. growed), 



Have (n. hev, n. haave), had, 

Hear (over-), heard (p. herd), 



Hew, R. 

Hide, 

Know (fore-), 

Lay (to place), 

Lie (to rest), 

Load, R. 

Mow, R. 

Put, 

Ride, 

Ring, 

Rise (a-), 

Rive, 

Run (out-), 

Saw, R. 

Say (un-, gain-), 

See (fore-), 

Set (to place, be-), 

Shake, 

Shave, R. 

Shear, R. 

Show, R. 

Sing, 

Shut (n. shet), 

Sink, 

Sit (to rest, n. set) , 

Slay, 

Slide, 

Smite, 

Sow, R. 

Speak (be-), 

Spring, 

Steal, 

Stink, 

Stride (be-), 

Strike, 



hewed, 

hid, 

knew (n. knowed), 

laid, 

lay, 

loaded, 

mowed, 

put, 

rode (rid J), 

rung, rang, 

rose, 

rived, 

ran, run, 

sawed, 

said (p. sed.) 

saw (n. seed), 

set, 

shook (n. shuck), 

shaved, 

sheared, 

showed, 

sung, sang, 

shut (n. shot), 

sunk (sankf), 

sat (n. sot). 



slid, 

smote, 

sowed, 

spoke (spake J), 

sprung (sprang f), 

stole, 

stunk (stank f), 

strode, strid, 

struck, 



PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

frozen, froze. 

forborne. 

got, gotten. 

given. 

gone. 

graven, graved. 

grown. 

had. 

heard (n. heared), 

hewed, hewn. 

hid, hidden. 

known. 

laid. 

lain. 

loaded, laden. 

mowed, mown. 

put. 

rode, ridden. 

rung. 

risen (n. ris). 

rived, riven. 

run. 

sawed, sawn. 

said (n. sayed). 

seen. 

set. 

shook, shaken. 

shaved, shaven. 

sheared, shorn. 

showed, shown. 

sung. 

shut. 

sunk. 

sat (sittenf), 

slain. 

slid, slidden. 

smitten, smit. 

sown, sowed. 

spoke, spoken. 

sprung. 

stolen, stole. 

stunk. 

strid, stridden. 

struck, stricken. 



100 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PRESENT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PERFECT PARTICIPLE 


Strive, E. 


strove (n. striv), 


striven. 


Strow, E. 


strowed, 


strowed, strown.^ 


Swear (for-), 


swore, 


sworn. 


Swell, E. 


swelled, 


swelled, swollen, swoln, 


Swim (re-, over-), 


swum, swam,* 


swum. 


Take (mis-, under-. 


be-) took (n. tuck), 


taken. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Thrive, E. 


throve, 


thriven. 


Throw (over-), E. 


threw, 


thrown. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden, trod. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave (un-), 


wove, 


woven, wove. 


Write, 


wrote (n. writ), 


written. 


Correct the obsolescent, obsolete, and 


\ incorrect words in 




Exercise 64. 





1. Susan writ me an interesting letter last week. 2. The 
chickens have crown twice this morning. 3. Fanny will forgit it 
in a minute. 4. Are you guine to town ? if so, git me a book. 
5. They sayed he could not come. 6. He come in and sot down. 
7. The boys sank down. 8. The girls sang a most beautiful 
sonnet. 9. Dick, shet that door. I have shot it, sir. 10. Who 
shuck that tree? 11. Henry sprang to his feet immediately. 
12. So, Susan hez no lesson. 13. You hev a fine library. 
14. Gim me that book. 15. A nail well driv will support a great 
weight. 16. Who wus in town yesterday ? 17. Mary has ben to- 
day. 18. I saw him setting by the wayside. 19. A pole was 
laying across the street. 20. The coach was drawed by four 
elegant horses. 21. He writ his letter very badly. 22. He 
knowed his duty, but done it not. 23. Butter is ris. 24. John 
busted the melon. 25. I never have seed that man before. 
26. She chosed, or choosed, that part. 27. Who brung you that 
orange? 28. They drive too slowly. 29. John go and ketch my 
hos. 30. The dogs cotch a raccoon. 31. Wus you present when 
Edward and Eufus fout? 32. Yes, I seed them when they fit. 
33. The corn has growed very rapidly this season. 34. Johnson 
lain that by for a friend. 35. He has laid in his bed too long. 
36. A sot laid in the street all night. 37. Price spake the French 
fluently. 38. The boy striv with all his might. 39. Who tuck 
my bonnet, Sarah ? 

Eule 13. 
A verb agrees with its subject in number and 
person. 



parsing of subjects and verbs. 101 

Model 14. 

"John love Martha and me." Say, John loves 
Martha and me, E. 13. Love should be loves, to be 
singular, to agree in number and person with its sub- 
ject, John. " Circumstances alters cases." Say, Cir- 
cumstances alter cases, E. 13. " How is your folks 
to-day." Say, How are your folks to-day, R. 13. 
" The girls was there." Say, The girls were there, 
E. 13. 

Parsing. 

" John loves Martha and me." (1) John is a noun, 
(2) masculine gender, (3) singular number, (4) third 
person, (5) subject to loves. 

Rem. — The rule for the agreement of a verb with its subject is 
given in parsing the verb. 

(1) Loves is a verb, (2) present tense, (3) singular 
number, (4) third person, (5) agrees with its subject, 
John, (6) E. 13. 

" Mary learned her lesson well." (1) Man/ is a 
noun, (2) feminine gender, (3) singular number, (4) 
third person, (5) subject to learned. 

(1) Learned is a verb, (2) past tense, (3) singular 
number, (4) third person, (5) agrees with its subject, 
Mary, (6) E. 13. 

" Circumstances alter cases." (1) Circumstances is 
a noun, (3) plural number, (4) third person, (5) sub- 
ject to the verb, alter. 

(1) Alter is a verb, (2) present tense, (3) plural 
number, (4) third person, (5) agrees with its subject, 
circumstances, (6) E. 13. 

" The man who is in prosperity must assist me in 
adversity." (1) Is is a verb, (2) present tense, (3) 
singular number, (4) third person, (5) agrees with 
its subject, who, (6) E. 13. 

(1) Must assist is a verb, (2) future tense, (3) sin- 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

gular number, (4) third person, (5) agrees with its 
subject, man, (6) R. 13. 

178. Obs. When a pronoun subject immediately 
follows a noun subject, the first verb agrees with the 
pronoun subject; but the last verb agrees with the 
noun subject, in number and person. 

179. Rem, — In interrogative and imperative sentences, the order 
is inverted, consequently the verb agrees with the subject which 
follows it ; as, " Believest thou ;" " Go thou." In such sentences, 
however, the subject stands between the helping and principal verb ; 
as, "Will he consent?" 

Correct the errors, parse the subjects and verbs, also, 
the descriptives and definitives, in 

Exercise 65. 

1. The girls goes to school. 2. Empty wagons makes the most 
noise. 3. The boys was here yesterday. 4. Is the children sick? 5. 
How is your folks to-day ? — A Governor. 6. The shoal of herrings 
were immense. 7. Disappointments sinks the heart of man ; but the 
renewal of hope give consolation. 8. The increase of orphans renders 
the addition necessary. 9. The ship with all her crew were lost. 
10. A round of vain and foolish pursuits delights some folks. 

180. Obs. Every verb should have a subject ex- 
pressed or understood. 

Model 15. 

" Cannot forbear to express my gratitude to you." 
Say, I cannot forbear to express my gratitude to 
you. Obs. 180. 

Exercise 66. 

1. Am sorry to hear of your loss, but hope it may be retrieved. 
2. Have just received your kind note. 3. Shall come to see you 
to-morrow. 4. I should be happy to assist you. 5. He wants not 
courage, but is defective in sensibility. 6. These people have indeed 
acquired great riches ; but do not command esteem. 

Note 37 — Neuter Yerbs. 

" In most grammars and dictionaries, verbs are divided, with 
respect to their signification, into three classes only ; active, pas- 
sive, and neuter. In such a division, the class of active verbs 



NEUTER VERBS. 103 

includes those only which are active- transitive, aud all the active- 
intransitive verbs are called neuter Lowth, Murray, 

Ainsworth, Alden, Allen, Alger, Bacon, Bicknell, Blair, Bullions 
(at first), Charles Adams, Bucke, Cobbett, Dilworth, A. Flint, 
Frost (at first), Greenleaf, Hall, Johnson, Lennie, Picket, Pond, 
Sanborn, E. C. Smith, Rev. T. Smith, and Wright. These authors, 
and many more, agree, that 'A verb neuter expresses neither 
action nor passion, but being or a state of being ; as, I am, I 
sleep, I sit.' — L. Murray, p. 50. Yet, according to their scheme, 
such words as walk, run, swim, fly, strive, struggle, wrestle, con- 
tend, are verbs neuter." — G-. Brown's Gram, of Grammars, 
p. 318. Obs. 4, 5. 

Lest my omission, to observe the distinction of verbs into active, 
passive, and neuter, should be regarded as a deficiency in my work, 
it may not be amiss to institute some examination as to the advan- 
tage and propriety of calling such words as strive, improve, 
walk, run, fly, swim, struggle, wrestle, contend, neuter verbs, four 
thousand such being enumerated as neuter verbs. 

This seeming omission has not been committed without many 
and various reasons : 

1st. Having instructed more pupils of all ages, capacities, and 
sexes, in English grammar, than, perhaps, any other teacher in the 
world, I have never found it necessary to call walk, run, fly, grin, 
blush, etc., neuter verbs, to teach my pupils the art of speaking 
and writing correctly — which is strictly the province of English 
grammar — and grammar alone ; but, on the contrary, I have found 
this division not a little perplexing and embarrassing. It is 
obviously unnecessary, tending much more to confuse than to 
enlighten the student, because it is not only useless, but unphiloso- 
phical, contradictory, and palpably absurd. Hear Noah Webster : 
" The common distribution into active, neuter, and passive, is very 
objectionable. Many of our neuter verbs imply action in a pre- 
eminent degree, as to run, to walk, to fly; and the young learner 
cannot easily conceive why such verbs are not called active." — 
Webster's Gram., p. 49. Who of the old learners can perceive 
why such words as walk, run, and fly, should be called neuter ? 

2nd. What is a neuter verb ? "A verb neuter expresses neither 
action nor passion, but being or a state of being ; as, I am, I sleep, 
I sit." — L. Murray's Gram., p. 50. It appears to me that nouns 
express being ; descriptives (adjectives) and participles express a 
state of being — this definiton rather confounds verbs with other 
classes of words. Mr. Murray, on page 149, gives us the following 
specimen of parsing a neuter verb. " Strive to improve." Strive 
is an irregular verb neuter, etc. Is this correct ? Is it true, that 
strive is a neuter verb — a word that expresses neither action nor 
passion, etc. ? Is this philosophical, though three hundred authors, 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and as many thousand teachers, should endorse it ? To my mind, 
strive not only expresses action, but the most violent action ; and 
I am constrained to teach and write accordingly. Second specimen, 
" To improve is a regular verb neuter" etc. Improve a neuter verb ! 

Some of the more superficial instructors tell their pupils that 
neuter verbs are distinguishable — not having objects ; but may not 
improve have an object ? Indeed, does not improve always have 
an object, either expressed or understood ? " Strive to improve' 1 
What ? " Strive to improve your mind." ^iind is the object of 
improve — neuter verb or not. This error is too glaring to receive 
further serious attention. 

3d. How can the so-called neuter verbs be used in the impera- 
tive mood ? Command a man to do nothing ! What if he obeys ' 
you, don't he do something ? Does not obedience imply action ? 
k ' He does obey you." " He does not." " He does not act." He 
does, yet he does not — a plain contradiction in terms. Can a man 
do, and not act ? " Sit up, or lie down and sleep. 11 If he sits 
up, he contracts certain muscles, relaxes others ; and so, if he lies 
down. In sleeping he relaxes the whole system — takes rest — in 
either instance he obeys me. — Here are both moral and physical 
action. Is it correct to say, £C What must I do ?" a You sit, lie, 
stand, remain, or go, etc., as you may choose." These words ap- 
pear to tell what you may do ; yet, strange to say, they don't ex- 
press anything like what you may do, at least, some of the grammars 
would have us say so. 

4th. How can the neuter verb have a participle ? Participles 
are so called, because they partake of the nature of a verb, in ex- 
pressing action and implying time. " Agreeably to the general 
practice of grammarians, we have represented the present partici- 
ple as active." — Murray, p. 53. If participles do not express 
action, why should Mr. Murray represent them so ? He seems to 
think this is in accordance with the general practice of grammarians, 
and numerous quotations might be made to prove the same. It 
would be remarkably strange for participles to derive from verbs, 
neuter verbs, too, a property which they (the neuter verbs) do not 
possess. 

5th. How can neuter verbs have adverbs? Adverbs qualify 
the action of verbs ; but neuter verbs express no action ; conse- 
quently, they do not admit of adverbs. That which qualifies being, 
or a state of being, must, unquestionably, be descriptives (adjec- 
tives), not adverbs. Adverbs must not be confounded with de- 
scriptives, 

6th. " Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the partici- 
ple, ought to have a nominative case 1 ' etc. — Murray, p. 98. 
Nominative case ! What is the nominative case ? " The agent, 
actor," etc. Why, then, should neuter verbs, expressing no ac- 



NEUTER VERBS. 105 

tion, etc., necessarily have nominative cases? Where there is 
no action under consideration, what necessity can there be for a 
nominative case, i. e., an actor ? When action is denied to the 
verb, what propriety can there be in ascribing it to the noun? 
One cannot be an actor unless he acts ; and, if he acts, the action 
must be expressed by the verb. 

7th. Be and its variations are classed with auxiliaries, or helping 
verbs. But how can a neuter verb be either principal or helping, 
as it expresses no action ? How can that which does nothing help 
another, or need the help of any one ? This reminds me of the dia- 
logue between the captain and the boys. Captain : -" What are 
you doing, Jack ?" " Nothing, sir." " What are you doing, 
Bob ?" " Helping Jack, sir." 

8th. Some say these verbs, though they express or imply ac- 
tion, are not active, because the action is not apparent or per- 
ceivable. How is it with the so-called active 1 Do they always 
express or imply action that is apparent and perceivable ? " John 
loves Mary ;" " George hates vice ;" " The pier supports the 
bridge ;" " I have a book." The verbs loves, hates, supports, and 
have, do not express any action that is apparent or perceivable ; 
yet these words are called active verbs. But the verbs sits, stands, 
walks, runs, etc., express action apparent ; smile, laugh, grin, 
blush, etc., though they express actions perceivable, are hopelessly 
excluded from the family of active verbs. It is said to be a bad 
rule that " won't work both ways." It must be a very poor rule 
that will not, and cannot, work either way. 

9 th. To what voice shall we assign the neuter verbs ? We are 
told verbs have two voices, active and passive, in English. If they 
are classed in the same voice with the active, where is the propriety 
of calling that voice active, which is equally common to the neuter 
verbs ? " All passive verbs are formed by adding the perfect par- 
ticiple of any active-transitive verb to the neuter verb to be." — 
R. C. Smith, p. 69. As these neuter verbs are never, by any sys- 
tem, embraced with the active-transitive; so, you perceive, they are 
likewise excluded from the passive voice. Why should neuter 
verbs not have a voice as well as other verbs ? 

10th. The friends and advocates of the neuter theory, giving am 
as an incontestable proof, boldly ask : " Does am, or any of its va- 
riations, ever express or imply action ?" Do not am and its varia- 
tions often express or imply action ? "I don't know, I have not 
thought." Before you argue grammatic questions, perhaps you 
had better think ; you would thus be better informed. What is 
the perfect tense of am ? " Have been." When I say, " You 
have been to Boston," don't have been then imply the action of 
having gone to, and having come from, Boston ? So, you see, the 
expression " have been'' implies a two-fold action. 
5* 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Am was derived from the two words, ah, breath, aud ma, the 
hand ; consequently, am, in its contracted form, literally means to 
take breath, to breathe. I take breath, I expand my lungs, I vivi- 
fy myself, are unequivocally and plainly implied in t am. I hope 
this requires no further proof, though many more illustrations are 
at hand. 

If there is such a thing, or word, as a neuter verb, we would be 
more than pleased to have Mr. Murray, or any of the Murray 
menders, to instruct us how to recognize aud distinguish this lite- 
rary curiosity. Mr. Kirkham says, u A neuter verb is one which is 
neither active nor passive." He has rather told us what a neuter 
verb is not, than what it is. He presumes that the pupil is familiar 
with active and passive verbs ; but this is an unwarantable pre- 
sumption. 

" So, I suppose, you make all verbs active." You have no au- 
thority for any such supposition. I see no more propriety in the 
application of the terms active and neuter to verbs than I do to 
nouns or participles, they often expressing or implying action as 
well as verbs. I regard verbs and all other words simply as the 
medium of thought, the inanimate, the inactive, the passive instru- 
ments of expression, whether of action, passion, being, state, idea, 
name, or anything. Many nouns and participles express or imply 
action, others do not ; yet I have not found any propriety, neces- 
sity, or advantage in distinguishing them as active and neuter. 

I assume the bold ground, that all Verbs either express or 
imply action. " The advocate of Neuter Yerbs will lay his knife 
on his table, and ask his pupil, what action the knife performs, 
lying on the table ? The student, not seeing any motion, will con- 
clude the verb lie is a Neuter Yerb, expressing no action, because 
he sees not the knife move ; and the teacher will boast confidently, 
that he has set aside the theory of active verbs. But the verb lie, 
in this example, expresses the very same kind of activity -the verb 
support does, in the example, ' the pier supports the bridge.' 
There is as much action in the lying of the knife, as in the support- 
ing of the pier, if we make action consist in motion. But action 
does not consist in motion, nor do grammarians of the Neuter 
school so consider it ; or they would not make support an active 
Yerb — for it expresses no visible motion. The verb support ex- 
presses the active influence which the pier exerts, by which the 
tendency of the bridge to fall is counteracted. The bridge exerts 
the attraction of gravitation, draws itself to the earth, and would 
down to the ground if the pier did not counteract, by the 
interposition of its strength, the power of gravity in the bridge ; 
and for this reason, the pier does something. The verb support 
expresses what it does. The verb lie expresses the very same kind 
of active influence. The knife, in lying on the table, counteracts 



NEUTER VERBS. 107 

as fixed and as well-defined a law of nature, as the pier does in 
supporting the bridge. The smoke of a pipe or cigar puffed from 
the mouth of a smoker, "^ould not lie on the table with the knife. 
And why not ? If lie is a Neuter Verb, and expresses no active 
exertion, smoke might be as able to do something as the knife. 
The smoke cannot lie on the table, because the atmospheric air 
displaces the smoke and causes it to rise. The knife has a greater 
specific gravity than tfre air, by which means it overcomes the 
natural tendency of the air, which strives to occupy the place of 
the knife. It overcomes a power, which has energy enough to lift 
the smoke to the cloudy. Surely this is doing something. The 
verb lie expresses that action. To illustrate this principle still 
further, take a piece of iron, and a piece of wood, and lay them on 
the bottom of a vessel, then fill the vessel with water ; the iron will 
remain on the bottom, while the wood will be forced to the top. 
Does not the iron do something which the wood cannot ? The 
iron overcomes th^ resistance which the water makes to its occu- 
pying a situation at the bottom of the vessel. — The wood cannot, 
and therefore, must give place to its more powerful rival, the 
water. The only difference between these illustrations is this, — the 
water is a visible fluid, and the air an invisible one. Should any 
object, that this reasoning is too philosophical and abstruse to be 
comprehended by children, I reply, I contend for philosophical 
activity, and it is allowable for me to call to my aid the principles of 
philosophy ; and thise principles prove as clear as a sunbeam that 
all verbs are active ; and if children are not philosophers, many of 
them will be, and should, therefore, be taught such principles as 
they will find to be in accordance with truth, when their minds 
arrive at maturity. And suppose they cannot comprehend the 
subject of philosophical activity, can they comprehend the neutra- 
lity of the old system ? John loves Jane ; here ' loves' is an 
active verb. Can the student see what John does to Jane in 
loving her ? Is there any more perceptible motion in love, than 
there is in any of the cases of philosophical activity above noticed ? 
The verb lie expresses as much visible or perceivable action as the 
verb love. * The wild goose flies from the lakes of Canada to the 
Atlantic ocean.' Fly is a Neuter Verb, l expressing neither 
action nor passion, but being or a state of being.' Can the child 
comprehend how fly is a Neuter Verb, while he sees the goose 
moving over his head. He sees clearly the thing you require him 
to believe is not true. And as it is much harder to believe what 
we know is not true, than it is to believe what we cannot under- 
stand, the strength of this objection stands out, with all its force, 
against the old grammarians. What ' being or state of being' is 
expressed by the verb fly 1 Is it the state of being of the goose ? 
Is this the signification of the verb fly ? If it is, then when I say 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the kite flies, the verb files expresses the state of being of a kite. 
Or does the verb at one time represent the state of being of a 
goose, and at another the state of being of a kite, or some other 
thing ? If it does, its-meaning is very equivocal and unsettled ; 
or does it, wherever used, represent the same sort of action, with- 
out regard to the agent that performs it?" — E. Smith's Gram., 
p. 67. 

" The verb to be is thought to have stronger claims to the 
character of neutrality than any other. It can hardly be neces- 
sary to say anything more on this verb, seeing that the etymons, 
which make its correlative parts of mood and tense, signify acti- 
vity. But as the friends and advocates of the neuter theory give 
it as an incontestible proof of their theory, I will trouble the 
reader with a few additional remarks. 

" ' The knife is on the table.' In this sentence the verb is ex- 
presses the exertion of active influence, as much as any verb in the 
language. Is expresses the being of a knife, and if the knife does 
anything to maintain its being, the verb is expresses that some- 
thing. There are two principles in nature diametrically opposed 
to each other, and their opposition is active and powerful : Co- 
hesive attraction and caloric. Attraction labors to draw together, 
or to consolidate into one mass the material universe ; and heat or 
caloric exerts itself to dissolve every material substance in nature. 
These two opposing principles, as agents appointed by the great 
Creator, keep things in their present conditions, by counteracting 
each other's influence. Attraction is a principle inherent in 
matter, a principle which is inseparable from matter, and which 
every portion of matter exerts. Caloric is a simple element — (is 
so considered by philosophers). Natural substances do not all 
exert the attraction of cohesion to an equal extent ; hence some 
are mose easily dissolved than others. Phosphorus and potassium 
are decomposed by the heat of common air, ice and butter by 
summer heat, and sand itself by the heat of a glass furnace. If 
the knife did not do something that potassium or phosphorus can- 
not do, it would soon dissolve into an aeriform state, and its owner 
have some trouble to find it, and more to use it. Put the knife 
into a furnace in full blast, and the principles of cohesion will soon 
be overcome, and the matter which composes the knife lose its 
solidity, and the knife its identity. When I say the knife is on 
the table, I convey the idea that the knife maintains its being in 
that situation, that it counteracts the influence of caloric, which 
operates to dissolve it. If the knife did nothing, it would not re- 
main long on the table, and the verb is expresses what it does, and 
is in philosophical strictness active. This is so plain that I need 
not add another word. To deny it is to deny the settled principles 
of philosophy. And though this reasoning and these explanations 



ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 109 

are too philosophical for children, it surely does not follow, we must 
teach them principles founded in error, because their minds have 
not sufficient maturity to comprehend the principles of truth. It 
is better not to learn, than to learn what we must unlearn. I mean 
this remark to apply to the errors of grammar, and not to the 
common systems of grammar, composed of error and truth." — 
E. Smith, p. 74. 

Note 38 — Active-transitive and Active-intransitive Yerbs. 

Transitive, from the Latin trans, over, and eo, to pass, means 
literally passing over, and is applied to verbs expressing an action 
that passes from the agent to the object acted upon ; as, " John 
struck William." 

" A Yerb Active expresses an action, and necessarily implies an 
agent, and an object acted upon; as, to love, Hove Penelope." — 
Murray, p. 50. " The verb active is also called transitive, 
because the action passes over to the object, or has an effect upon 
some other thing ; as, " The tutor instructs his pupils." — Ibid, 
What does the verb transitive do more than the verb active ? 

Here is an additional word without any increase in idea, this is 
pleonastic ; active and transitive, meaning substantially the same, 
are tautological, consequently one is superfluous and should be re- 
jected. An active-transitive verb is literally an active do-some- 
thing verb, an active-efficient ! 

Intransitive, from the Latin in, not, trans, over, and eo, to pass, 
means not passing over. " Yerbs neuter may properly be deno- 
minated intransitives, because the effect is confined within the 
subject, and does not pass over to any object." — Murray, p. 50. 
" The effect !" What effect ? " Why, the effect of the action ex- 
pressed by intransitive verbs, of course — ' neuter verbs may pro- 
perly be denominated intransitives J " Neuter verbs express 
neither action nor passion, etc., yet, denominate them intransitive, 
and talk about an effect — an effect without an action — strange 
philosophy. After dividing active verbs into active-transitive and 
active-intransitive, -where is the propriety of denominating neuter 
verbs intransitive ? 

Active-intransitive verb ! just think of the equivalent — active- 
neuter verb — active-do-nothings. " An active-intransitive verb is 
one that expresses action, but will not take an object after it." — 
R. C. Smith, p. 21. How, then, can a neuter verb be denominated 
active-intransitive, seeing that the • active-intransitive expresses 
action ? Here is some discrepancy between Smith and Murray. 
" But will not take an object after it." " Judas went and hanged 
himself," hanged certainly expresses an action — a violent action ; 
and the effect is confined within the subject, yet hanged answers 
strictly to the description of an active-intransitive verb, and is 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

followed by the object himself— -where, then, is the truth in saying 
that these verbs will not take objects after them ? For the pro- 
priety of this doctrine, examine some of the following examples of 
the active-intransitive, or active neuter verbs : " A sensible wife 
would soon smile him into good-humor." — Addison. u He sleeps 
the sleep of death ;" " He lives a very comfortable life ;" " He 
dies the death of the righteous ;" " She looked inimitable charms;" 
"Trees wept odorous gums;" " Grin a ghastly smile;" "Her 
lips blushed deeper sweets;" "I sit me down a pensive hour to 
spend." 

The rule appears to fail most signally in these examples. In 
what respect do they differ from active verbs ? We are told, 
that " A verb active expresses an action, and necessarily implies 
an agent and an object acted upon." 

Do not the verbs italicised in the examples above express action, 
and have objects acted upon ? 

We are told active- transitive verbs have objects after them, — 
active-intransitive have not. Is this test true ? Do transitive verbs 
always have objects after them ? Do not the intransitive, as has 
just been shown, often have objects after them ? Then, where is the 
difference ? Why teach American youths this doctrine, which their 
constant and everyday observation will demonstrate to them to be 
false ? I hope they will not be so tractable as to be led without 
seeing. 

The division of verbs into transitive and intransitive is objec- 
tionable, because it does not exhaust the subject ; and logic requires 
this : though we hear of active-transitive and active-intransitive, 
yet with what propriety can neuter verbs, if there are such things, 
be called active, either transitive or intransitive? That which is 
neuter can't be active. 

We hear of verbs having two voices. In what voice are the 
active-intransitive verbs found ? Murray tell us : " Verbs neuter 
may properly be denominated intransitives." If so, there is obvi- 
ously an inconsistency in classing neuter verbs with the active, and 
calling the classification active-Yoice ; and as all passive verbs are 
formed by adding the perfect participle of any active-transitive 
verb to the neuter verb to be, so they are also excluded from the 
passive voice, hence you see this classification of verbs is defective 
and contradictory, and should be discarded. 

Eule 14. 
Verbs govern objects. 

Model 16. 
"He struck she and me." Say, He struck her and 
me, R. 14. 



RELATIVES GOVERN OBJECTS. Ill 

181. Rem. — Yerbs may govern several objects expressing dif- 
ferent characters of the same person or thing ; as, " Romulus call- 
ed the city Rome.'" 

Parsing. 

"She pleases Mary and me." (1) Mary is a noun, 
(2) feminine gender, (3) singular number, (4) third 
person, (5) object of the verb, pleases, (6) R. 14. 

Correct the errors, also parse some of the nouns, defini- 
tives, descriptives, verbs, and adverbs, in 

Exercise 67. 

1. The teacher loves you and I. 2. The instructress hates the 
girls and he. 3. Our mother may help us and they. 4. The officer 
protected she and her property. 5. Your present pleases Jane and 
the little boys. 6. The man who he raised from obscurity is dead. 
7. He is a man whom I greatly respect. 8. Permit she and me 
to walk. 9. Such folly will ruin ye. 10. She that is negligent, 
reprove sharply. 11. Who did they entertain so freely ? 12. Who 
did the professor punish? She and I. 13. They who opulence 
made proud, and who luxury corrupted, cannot relish the simple 
pleasures of nature. 

Eule 15. 

Relatives govern objects. 

Model 17. 

"The teacher gave the book to Annie and I." 
Say, The teacher gave the book to Annie and me, 
R. 15. 

182. Obs. Relatives should generally be placed 
before their objects. " Boy, who do you belong to ?" 
Say, Boy, to whom do you belong? Obs. 1S2. 

Parsing. 

" The landscape before us is beautiful." (1) Before 
is a relative, (2) shows the relation between land- 
scape and us, (3) governs us. 

182. Rem. — The rule for the government of the relative is given 
in parsing the object. 

183. Rem. — The subsequent term is generally a noun or pro- 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

noun, sometimes a phrase or sentence; the antecedent term may be 
almost any part of speech ; as, a noun, pronoun, verb, participle, 
descriptive, adverb, or a whole phrase or sentence. 

284. Rem. — " He is a man of virtue," of shows the relation 
between the two nouns, man and virtue. 

185. Rem. — " She is worth him and all his connections," worth 
shows the relation between the pronoun she, and the pronoun him 
and the noun connections. 

186. Rem. — " Harry walked around the house," around shows 
the relation between the verb walked, and the noun house. 

187. Rem. — " He is devoid of understanding," of shows the re- 
lation between the descriptive devoid, and the noun understanding. 

188. Rem. — " Ambassadors were sent previously to the decla- 
ration," to shows the relation between the adverb previously, 
and the noun declaration. 

189. Rem. — " We have not seen him since Saturday," since 
shows the relation between the noun Saturday, and all the prece- 
ding part of the sentence. 

Correct the errors, also parse the relatives and their 
objects, in 

Exercise 68. 

1. I gave the paper to she. 2. From he that is needy turn not 
away. 3. Let that remain a secret between you and I. 4. She 
run by they and we, in great haste. 5. It rests with thou and me 
to decide. 6. The king, with the lords and commons, compose the 
British Parliament. 7. The General with his men was lost. 8. 
Sobriety with humility leads to honor. 9. I lent the book to some 
one, I know not who. 10. I bestow my favors on whosoever 1 
will. 11. Nothing but frivolous amusements pleases the indolent. 
12. Who did they send for? 13. Who shall I direct this letter 
to ? 14. With whom did you walk ? 15. Who do you belong 
to ? 16. Who was it made by ? 17. Who do you go to school to ? 
18. Whom did he inquire for? Thou. 19. They who much is given 
to, will have much to answer for. 20. From the character of those 
who you associate with, your own will be estimated. 

Eule 16. 

Pronouns agree with their nouns in gender, num- 
ber, and person. 

Model 18. 

" The defendant's counsel had a difficult task im- 



PARSING OF PRONOUNS. 113 

posed on it." Say, The defendant's counsel had a 
difficult task imposed on him, R. 16. " Rebecca 
took goodly raiment and put them on Jacob." 
Say, Rebecca took goodly raiment and put it on 
Jacob, R. 16. "The tree beareth fruit after his 
kind." Say, The tree beareth fruit after its kind, R. 
16. 

190. Rem. — Definitives derived from pronouns agree with the 
nouns for which the pronouns would have stood, in gender, number, 
and person. 

Parsing. 

"Henry goes to school, he learns fast, and the 
teacher likes him." (1) He is a pronoun, (2) mascu- 
line gender, (3) singular number, (4) third person, 
(5) subject to learns, (6) stands for Henry, (7) R. 16. 

(1) Him is a pronoun, (2) masculine gender, (3) 
singular number, (4) third person, (5) object of 
likes, (6) R. 14. (7) stands for Henry, (8) R. 16. 

"I like Susan, she gave the dove to me, because 
it displeased her." (1) I is a pronoun, (3) singular 
number, (4) first person, (5) subject to like, (6) 
stands for the person speaking, (7) R. 16. 

191. Rem. — The speaker and hearer being present, one cannot 
be ignorant of the gender of i, me, we, us, thou, thee, ye, and you ; 
and generally, when these pronouns occur in narrative, we are told 
whom they stand for, otherwise the gender cannot be determined : 
therefore this, the second step, in parsing I, is omitted. 

(1) She is a pronoun, (2) feminine gender, (3) 
singular number, (4) third person, (5) subject to 
gave, (6) stands for Susan, (7) R. 16. 

(1) Me is a pronoun, (3) singular number, (4) first 
person, (5) object of the relative to, (6) R. 15, (7) 
stands for the person speaking, (8) R. 16. 

(1) It is a pronoun, (3) singular number, (4) third 
person, (5) subject to displeased, (6) stands for dove, 
(7) R. 16. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

192. Rem. — As the sex of dove is undetermined, the gender of 
the pronoun it cannot be assigned. Many grammarians call dove 
common gender, — it neuter gender : but to give these words different 
genders, while they stand for the same animal, and yet say that 
they agree in gender, appears to be a most palpable inconsistency. 
[See Note 11 — Common Gender ; Note 12 — Neuter Gender.] 

(1) Her is a pronoun, (2) feminine gender, (3) 
singular number, (4) third person, (5) object of dis- 
pleased, (6) E. 14, (7) stands for Susan, (8) R. 16. 

Correct the errors, and parse the nouns and pronouns, 
in 

Exercise 69. 

1. The person who seeks wisdom will certainly find her. 2. I 
gave him oats ; but he would not eat it. 3. A person may make 
themselves happy without riches. 4. The moon appears ; but the 
light is not his own. 5. The -mind, as well as the body of man, 
demands his proper food. 6. Let each esteem others better than 
themselves. 7. The male amongst birds seems to discover no 
beauty, but in the color of its species. 8. Let every boy answer 
for himself. 9. The tongue is like a race horse, which runs the 
faster the less weight it carries. — Addison. — Jon. Die. 

Promiscuous examples involving the four preceding 
rules 

Exercise 70. 

1. Not one of the authors who mentions this incident are entitled 
to credit. 2. The boys hate she and me. 3. Who will you vote 
for ? 4. The mind of man cannot continue long without some food 
to nourish the activity of his thoughts. 5. The cares of this world 
often chokes the growth of virtue. 6. My father allowed my brother 
and I to accompany him. 7. Between him and I there is some 
disparity of years, but none between he and she. 8. One should 
not think too favorably of themselves. 

Rule 17. 

Verbs having different subjects connected by and, 
taken together, must be plural. 

Model 19. 

11 Time and tide waits for no man." Say, Time 
and tide wait for no man, R. 17. 



PRONOUNS STANDING FOR DIFFERENT NOUNS. 115 

" Thomas and George is brothers." Say, Thomas 
and George are brothers, R. 17. 

Parsing. 

" Time and tide wait for no man." (1) Time is a 
noun, (3) singular number, (4) third person, (5) sub- 
ject with tide to wait. 

(1) Tide is a noun, (3) singular number, (4) third 
person, (5) subject with time to wait. 

(1) Wait is a verb, (2) present tense, (3) plural 
number, (4) third person, (5) agrees with the two 
subjects, time and tide, (6) R. 17. 

" Thomas and George are brothers." (1) Are is a 
verb, (2) present tense, (3) plural number, (4) third 
person, (5) agrees with the two subjects, Thomas 
and George, R. 17. 

Correct the errors, parse the nouns, pronouns, and 
verbs involved in the corrections; also parse thedescriptives, 
definitives, and adverbs, in 

. Exercise 71. 

1. James and John is sick. 2. Henrietta and Emma are good 
girls. 3. Socrates and Plato was wise. 4. Luey 3 Lucinda, and 
Mary respects me. 5. William and Henry runs well. 6. You 
and I am in fault. 7. My coat and pants was made by Brooks. 
8. Amanda and her aunt has gone home. 9. The farmer and his 
son works diligently. 10. In all his works there is sprightliness 
and vigor. 11. In unity consists the security and welfare of every 
society. 

Rule 18. 

Pronouns standing for different nouns connected 
by and, taken together, must be plural. 

Model 20. 

" Your levity and heedlessness, if it continue, will 
prevent all substantial improvement." Say, Your 
levity and heedlessness, if they continue, will pre- 
vent all substantial improvement, R. 18. 



116 english grammar, 

Parsing. 

(1) They is a pronoun, (3) plural number, (4) third 
person, (5) subject to continue, (6) stands for the 
two nouns, levity and heedlessness, (7) R. 18. 

Correct the errors, and parse the pronouns, in 

Exercise 72 

1. John and Joseph have recited his lessons well, and he has 
been dismissed. 2. Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his 
countenance. 3. Both cold and heat have its extremes. 4. Julia, 
Mary, and Charlotte are ornaments of her sex. 5. If love and 
unity continue, they Will make you partakers of one another's joy. 
6. Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity ; 
guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of it. 

193. Obs. Pronouns standing for different names, 
referring to the same person or thing, though con- 
nected by and, should be singular, because only one 
individual is to be represented. 

Model 21. 

" That great statesman and general did much for 
themselves as well as their country." Say, That 
great statesman and general did' much for himself as 
well as his country, Obs. 193. 

Exercise 73. 

1. This philosopher and poet was banished from their country. 
2. This great officer and soldier continued in public life until they 
had attained their eighty-first year. 

Note 39 — Two or more Nouns Connected by And. 

" Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the singular 
number, connected by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, 
nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the plural ; as, " Soc- 
rates and Plato were wise ; they were eminent philosophers." — 
Kirkham, p. 178, Rule 8 ; R. C. Smith, p. 102, Rule 18 ; Murray, 
p. 100, Rule 2. 

The epithet singular is unnecessary, as the rule is equally applic- 
able to plural nouns and pronouns. It is not a little amusing to 
compare Kirkham, R. C. Smith, Bullions, and a few more of the 
same school with Murray, and mark the astonishing improvements 



AGREEMENT OF VERBS. 117 

which they have made on him. They might have made improve- 
ments, for there was room enough, and to spare. 

^ This rule is subject to four classes of exceptions, each class fur- 
nishing numerous examples. 

^ 1st. When and, or any other of the so-called copulative conjunc- 
tions, connects nouns or pronouns standing for the same person or 
thing, the nouns, pronouns, and verbs referring to such should be 
singular, as only an individual is represented ; thus, " In that 
strength and cogency which renders eloquence powerful."— Blair's 
lihet., p. 252. " The hue and cry of the country pursues him." — 
Junius, Letter 23. For more exceptions, see all the examples un- 
der, and belonging to, Obs. 193, in this grammar. 

2d. Nouns preceded by each or every, though connected by and, 
are separately considered ; consequently, the nouns, pronouns, and 
verbs referring to such should be singular ; as, " It is the cause of 
every reproach and distress which has attended your government." — 
Junius, Letter 35. " Each worm, and each insect, is a marvel of 
creative power." All the examples belonging to Rules 17 and 18, 
furnish additional exceptions to Kirkham's rule. 

3d. Two singular nouns emphatically distinguished, though con- 
nected by and, do not, by any means, require corresponding nouns, 
pronouns, and verbs to be plural ; as, "Ambition, and not the 
safety of the state, was concerned." — Goldsmith. " The butler, 
and not the baker, was restored to his office." 

4th. A verb coming between subjects, though they are connect- 
ed by and, agrees with the preceding, and is understood with the 
following subjects ; as, " Disdain forbids me, and my dread of 
shame." — Milton. 

11 Forth, in the pleasing spring, 
Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness and love." 

Thompson. 

For the third and fourth exceptions, I am under some obligations 
to G. Brown's Gram, of Grammars, p. 564. 

By comparing Rules 17 and 18 with this rule in Kirkham, it 
may be seen that we have avoided these tantalizing and perplexing 
exceptions, by simply inserting the expressions, " different, taken 
together." Thus, much labor and perplexity are saved to the 
teacher and pupil ; for it must be very embarrassing; to the teacher 
as well as the pupil, to employ a rule that is applicable only to one 
of the five classes included. In other words, while one truth is 
acquired, four errors are inculcated. Total ignorance must be far 
preferable to such instruction. 

Kule 19. 
Verbs having subjects connected by either, neither. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

or, or nor, agree with the last subject in number and 
person. 

Model 22. 

" Jane or Thomas are in the house." Say, Jane 
or Thomas is in the house, E. 19. 

" Cella or Mary write." Say, Cella or Mary writes, 
R. 19. 

Parsing. 

" Jane or Thomas is in the house." (1) Jane is a 
noun, (2) feminine gender, (3) singular number, (4) 
third person, (5) subject to is, understood. 

(1) Thomas is a noun, (2) masculine gender, (3) 
singular number, (4) third person, (5) subject to is, 
expressed. 

(1) Is is a verb, (2) present tense, (3) singular 
number, (4) third person, (5) agrees with Thomas, 
the last subject, (6) R. 19. 

" Either he or the girls were in fault. (1) Were 
is a verb, (2) past tense, (3) plural number, (4) third 
person, (5) agrees with girls, the last subject, (6) R. 
19. 

194. Obs. Having nouns of different numbers 
connected by either, neither, or, or nor, place the plu- 
ral last. " Neither the sailors nor the captain was 
saved." Say, Neither the captain nor the sailors 
were saved, Obs. 194. 

Correct the errors, parse the words involved in the cor- 
rections, and point out all the parts of speech, in 

Exercise 74. 

1. Moses or John are at work. 2. Either the girls or the boy 
were present. 3. Man's happiness or misery are, in a great mea- 
sure, put into his own hands. 4. John or I has done it. 5. Nei- 
ther I nor the boys were in fault. 6. Neither he nor I intends to 
be present. 7. He or I am to blame. 8. Ignorance or negligence 
have caused this mistake. 9. He or I is sure of this week's prize. 



PRONOUNS — ADVERBS. 119 

10. He or they was offended. 11. Thou or he art the person who 
must go on that business. 12. When sickness, infirmity, or reverse 
of fortune affects us, the sincerity of friendship is proved. 13. 
Neither the ministers nor the king is to be praised. 14. Neither 
the passengers, nor any of the crew, nor the admiral, was saved. 

Rule 20. 

Pronouns standing for nouns connected by the 
Conjunctives either, neither, or or nor, agree with the 
last noun in gender, number, and person. 

Model 23. 

" If thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut them 
off, and cast them from thee." — Matthew, xviii, 8. 
Say, Cut it off, and cast it from thee, R. 20. 

PARSING. 

(1) " It is a pronoun, (3) singular number, (4) third 
person, (5) object of cut, (6) R. 14, (7) stands for 
foot, the last-mentioned noun, (8) R. 20. 

Correct the errors, and parse the nouns and pronouns 
involved, also some of the other parts of speech, in 

Exercise 75. 

1. Should John or Mary take that to himself. 2. Neither he 
nor his friends have interested himself in this subject. 3. One or 
the other must relinquish their claim. 4. Rye or barley, when it 
is scorched, may supply the place of coffee. 5. Neither James 
nor John has gained to themselves much credit. 6. It must be 
confessed that a lampoon or satire does not carry in them robbery 
or murder. 

Rule 21. 

Adverbs qualify participles. 

Model 24. 

" The work was uncommon well executed." Say, 
The work was uncommonly well executed, R. 21. 

195. Rem. — Descriptives becoming helping descriptives, or 
helping adverbs, take the form ,of adverbs ; hence, uncommon, in 
the preceding sentence, should take the adverbial form un- 
commonly. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Correct the errors, also point out the participles, and 
parse the adverbs, in 

Exercise 76. 

1. Elizabeth is sleeping quiet. 2. The pupils have behaved 
very bad. 3. When a noun is put absolute. 4. The work was 
uncommonly well executed. 5. These appear to be finished the 
neatest. 6. The assertions of this author are easier detected. 
7. He is miserable poor. 8. You are most easily teased. 

HELPING AND PRINCIPAL CONJUNCTIVES. 

Select, and point out the difference between, the helping 
and principal Conjunctives, in 

Exercise. 77. 

1. Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. 
2. Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell. 3. I will either send 
it or bring it myself. 4. Neither thou nor I can comprehend it. 

5. Some physicians love loth the study and practice of medicine. 

6. Although he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 7. As stars, so 
shall thy seed be. 8. What rests, hut that the martial sentence 
pass. 9. It seems as if they were instructed by some secret 
instinct. 10. He was not only rich, hut also generous. 11. If 
you will take the right, I will go to the left. 12. Therefore doth 
my Father love me, because I lay down my life. 13. And yet fair 
bow, no fabling dreams. 14. As two are to four so are six to 
twelve. 

195 J. Rem. — Two conjunctives, taken together, are sometimes 
called double conjunctives ; as, " Live so as to be happy." 

196. Obs. " But what should not be used for but 
that. " He will not believe but what I am to 
blame." Say, He will not believe but that I am to 
blame, Obs. 196. " I had no idea but what the 
story was true." Say, I had no idea but that the 
story was true, Obs. 196. 

Rule 22. 

Conjunctives connect sentences, or words of the 
same construction. . 

197. Rem. — By the term, " words of the same construction," is 
to be understood, nouns and pronouns of the same relation ; verbs 



PARSING OF CONJUNCTIVES. 121 

belonging to the same subject ; descriptives and adverbs of the 
same degree. 

Model 25. 

" May John and me go out." Say, May John and 
I go out, K. 22. "She wrote and reads well." 
Say, She wrote and read well, or She writes and 
reads well, R. 22. 

198. Rem. — " He was a great and good man," and connects 
the two descriptives, great and good, in the same degree, that is, 
positive degree, R. 22. " Living honestly and honorably is ex- 
pected of every one," and connects the two adverbs, honestly and 
honorably, in the positive degree, R. 22. 

PARSING. 

" Straws swim on the surface ; but pearls lie at 
the bottom." (1) But is a conjunctive, (2) connects 
the two sentences, " Straws swim on the surface — 
pearls lie at the bottom, R. 22. " May John and I 
go out." (1) And is a conjunctive, (2) connects 
John and I in the relation of subjects to go (3) 
R. 22. 

Correct the errors, parse the conjunctives, and other 
words, at discretion, in 

Exercise 77. 

1. My brother and him are tolerable grammarians. 2. You 
and us enjoy many privileges. 3. She and him are very unhappily 
connected. 4. She sung and dances well. 5. They would neither 
go in themselves nor suffered others to enter. 6. If he under- 
stands the business and attends to it, wherein is he deficient ? 
7. John will learn, because he applies himself. 8. He is poor, 
but honest. 9. Some men sin deliberately, therefore presumptu- 
ously. 

Give a thorough and systematic parsing of the sen- 
tences in 

Exercise 78. 

1. John goes to school, he learns fast, and the teacher likes him. 
2. Mary attends church, she pays close attention, and the preacher 
instructs her. 3. Henry took the book, because it pleased him. 
6 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. The man who instructs you, labors faithfully. 5. The boy 
whom I teach learns well. 6. The girl that acts wisely deserves 
praise. 7. The bird which sung so sweetly is flown. 8. Henrietta 
reads and writes well. 9. Washington was a great and good man. 
10. Martha behaves modestly and discreetly. 11. John and 
Susan are economical, and they will become rich ; we commend 
them for economy. 12. If his son ask bread, will he give him a 
stone ? 13. He shall not eat of holy things, unless he wash his 
flesh with water. 14. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in 
him. 

Promiscuous examples involving the six preceding 
rules. 

Exercise 79. 

1. Sickness and death is unavoidable. 2. George and Charles 
are diligent in his studies. 3. William or Laura intends to ac- 
company me. 4. Man is not such a machine as a clock or a 
watch, which moves merely as they are moved. 5. She was 
walking very rapid. 6. Him and me are of the same age. 
7. Esteem and love was never to be sold. 8. Poverty and ob- 
scurity will oppress him only who esteems it oppressive. 9. Neither 
poverty nor riches was injurious to him. 10. Despise no infirmity 
of mind or body, nor any condition of life, for it may be thy own 
lot. 11. He is working very good now. 12. She and them did 
the same thing. 



PAKT IV. 
KINDS OF NOUNS. 



199. Obs. Nouns may be divided into six kinds ; 
Specific, Generic, Collective or nouns of multitude, 
Abstract, Participial, and Verbal. , 

200. Obs. Specific nouns distinguish individuals 
of the same kind, or class, from one another ; as, 
George, Boston, England. 

201. Obs. Generic nouns, equally applicable to 
all of a class, distinguish one class from those of 
another class ; as, boy, town, country. 

202. Obs. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, 



PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 123 

comprise many entire, separate, distinct, and inde- 
pendent individuals in one body ; as, school, family, 
people, army, nation, etc. 

203. Obs. Abstract nouns are the names of quali- 
ties abstractly considered ; as, goodness, hardness, 
pride, vanity. 

204. Obs. Participial nouns partake of the nature 
of both participles and nouns; as, "They could not 
avoid hearing him ;" " Sleeping is delightful ;" "If 
he escapes being banished by others, I fear he will 
banish himself." — Pope's Let. to Swift. 

205. Obs. Verbal nouns, having the form of verbs, 
may express or imply action, also govern objects; 
and, like nouns, they are governed by the relative to 
expressed or understood; as,. "He desires to do his 
part." [See Note 45 — Infinitive Mood.] 

Note 40. — Proper and Common Nouns. 

Some grammarians divide nouns into proper and common ; but 
I regard this division as tending rather to confuse than to enlighten 
the youthful mind. All nouns are proper, when appropriately ap- 
plied, and many are quite common : the object of a division is to 
distinguish, but how can that which is professedly common be dis- 
tinctive ? 

M Common noun? at best, is very vague and indeterminate, and 
implies the idea of an uncommon noun — an absurdity. 

" Proper noun" implies that other nouns are improper — another 
absurdity. 

But some may say, " You do not take these words in the sense 
used by grammarians.''' Please tell me in what sense you will have 
them taken. The word proper comes from the Latin (proprius), 
and literally means proper (correct and appropriate). Murray 
uses it in the latter sense, and says, " Proper nouns or substantives 
are the names appropriated to individuals ; as, George, London, 
Thames. I cannot see how a term can be appropriated to an in- 
dividual, when it is common to an indefinite number of persons or 
places. 

" The classification of nouns as common and proper, is one rather 
of curiosity than of practical utility in the science of language. " — 
Clark, p. 44. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

As "practical utility" is preferable to curiosity, and as a know- 
ledge of this division would not enable the student to speak more 
correctly, nor an ignorance of it occasion him to commit an error 
in speaking, to require the student to study this division would be 
a bad investment of his time and labor. 

206. Obs. Verbs agreeing with collective nouns 
may be either singular or plural, according to the 
unity or plurality of the idea. 

Model 26. 
"The nobility was assured that he would not 
interpose." Say, The nobility were assured that he 
would not interpose, Obs. 206. Plurality of idea 
is conveyed by the term nobility. 

Correct the errors in 

Exercise 80. 
1. Mankind was not united by the bonds of civil society. 2. The 
majority was not disposed to adopt the measure. 3. All the world 
is spectators of your conduct. 4. The British Parliament are com- 
posed of king, lords, and commons. 5. The regiment consists of a 
thousand men. 6. The public is respectfully informed. 7. The 
commonalty are divided into several degrees. — Blackstone's 
Com., 1, 12. 

207. Obs. Pronouns standing for collective nouns 
may be either singular or plural, according to the 
unity or plurality of the idea. 

Model 27. 
" Mankind are more united by the bonds of friend- 
ship than it were formerly." Say, Mankind are more 
united by the bonds of friendship than they were 
formerly, Obs. 207. 

208. Rem. — Collective nouns conveying the idea of plurality 
are plural ; conveying the idea of unity they are singular, and may 
take the plural form ; as, army, armies ; nation, nations, etc. 

Correct the errors, also parse the nouns and pronouns 

involved, in 

Exercise 81. 
1. Send the multitude away that it may go and bring itself bread. 



KINDS OF NOUNS DEFINITIVES. 125 

2. When the nation complains the rulers should listen to their 
voice. 3. The people have no opinion of its own. 4. The jury will 
be confined till it agrees on a verdict. — Brown's Inst., p. 145. 5. 
The council were divided in its sentiment. 6. Every religious 
association has an undoubted right to adopt a creed for themselves. 
— Gould's Advocate, iii, 405. 

209. Obs. Collective nouns directly referring to 
the persons composing the collection are repre- 
sented by who; those not directly referring to per- 
sons are represented by which or that. 

Model 28. 
" The family whom I visited has left town." Say, 
The family which, etc. Family here does not refer 
directly to the persons represented, but simply to 
a collection of individuals. 

210. Rem. — " It may, perhaps, be more accurately stated, that 
such words, considered as singulars, require which; as plurals, 
who. i The army tvhich was eager for revenge,' and ' The army 
who were clamorous for pay,' are examples.'' — Barnard's Gram., 
p. 149. 

Correct the errors, also parse the collective nouns and 
the corresponding 'pronouns, in 

Exercise 82. 

1. Nor does he describe classes of sinners who do not exist. — 
Anti-Slavery Magazine, i, 27. 2. France who was in alliance 
with Sweden. — Smollett's Voltaire, vi, 187. 3. The conclusion of 
the Iliad is like the exit of a great man out of company whom he 
has entertained magnificently. — Cowper. 4. When you transfer, 
you abdicate, and the great original trust reverts to the people, 
from whom it issued. 

Rule 23. 

The definitives this and that point out or limit sin- 
gular nouns. 

211. Rem. — This points out the nearer ; that, the more distant 
of two persons or things ; as, " This book in my hand ; that book 
on the desk." 

Model 29. 
" Those sort of people you will find to be very 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

troublesome." Say, That sort of people you will 
find to be verv troublesome, R. 23. 

Correct the errors , and parse, at discretion, in 

Exercise 83. 

1. Those kind of injuries we need fear. 2. These class of verbs 
are more expressive than their radicals. 3. Things of these sort 
are easily understood. 4. What was the height of that gallows 
which Haman erected ? 5. That breeze is refreshing. 6. This book 
on that shelf is my grammar. 

Rule 24. 

The definitives these and those point out or limit 
plural nouns. 

212. Rem. — These points out the nearer ; those, the more distant 
of two classes of persons or things ; as, " These boys here ; those 
girls yonder." 

Model 30. 

" Who broke that tongs ?" Say, Who broke those 
tongs ? R. 24. 

Correct the errors and parse, in 

Exercise 84. 

1. Bring out that oats. 2. Where did you drop this scissors? 
3. Extinguish that embers. 4. Where has Henry been this two 
hours ? 5. What is the price of these tongs. 6. Joseph was indus- 
trious, frugal, and discreet ; and, by this means, obtained property 
and reputation. 

Rule 25. 

When definitives point out the same person or 
thing, the apostrophe (') and s may be omitted, ex- 
cept after the last. 

213. Obs. Nouns representing the same person 
or thing, and those connected by and, becoming defi- 
nitives, take the apostrophe (') and s only after the 
one next to the noun pointed out, which noun may 
be expressed or understood. 

214. Obs. When the names of a person and an 



DEFINITIVES. 127 

office become definitives, the apostrophe (') and s are 
generally omitted after the name of the office. 

Model 31. 

" Andrews's and Stodard's Latin Grammar is an 
able work." The apostrophe (') and s should have 
been omitted after Andrews, K. 25. 

"I will not for David's, thy father's sake." The 
apostrophe and s should not have been used after 
David, Obs.2U. 

" I left the parcel at Pfister's, the bookseller's." 
Omit the apostrophe and s after bookseller, Obs. 
2U. 

Correct the errors, and parse, at discretion, in 

Exercise 85. 

1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer great 
calamities. 2. This is John's, Andrew's, and William's house. 3. 
What was Simon's and Andrew's employment. — Author. 4. 
Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. 
5. A. S. Barnes's & Co.'s publications. 

6. " And love's and friendship's finely pointed dart, 
Falls blunted from each indurated heart." 

Goldsmith. 

7. This was the apostle's Paul's advice. 8. John's the Baptist's 
head. 9. For David's my servant's sake. 10. I called at Mr. 
Crowder, the jeweler's. 11. I left the book at Johnson's, a re- 
spectable merchant and a worthy man's. 12. I bought the knives 
at Black's, the cutler. 13. The silk was purchased at Brown's, the 
mercer's and haberdasher's. 

Rule 26. 

When definitives point out different persons or 
things, though of the same name or kind, the apos- 
trophe (') and s should not be omitted. 

Model 32. 

" Webster and Murray's Grammars differ widely 
from each other." The apostrophe and s should not 
have been omitted after Webster, E. 26. 

"Lost in love's and friendship's smile." — Scott. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Correct the errors, and parse the definitives, in 

Exercise 86. 

1. This measure gained the king, as well as the people's appro- 
bation. 2. George, Eichard, and Edmond's farms were bequeathed 
to them by their respective fathers. 3. John regards neither the 
master nor the pupil's advantage. 4. James relieves neither the 
boy's nor the girl's distress. 5. In the same commemorative acts 
of the senate were thy name, thy father, thy brother, and the em- 
peror's. 6. A father's or mother's sister is an aunt. 7. Should I 
obey my father and mother's counsel. 8. It was my father, mother, 
and uncle's advice. 9. He has the surgeon and physician's advice. 
10. Was it John, or Eliza's teacher, that wrote the letter? 11. 
Add Nature, Custom, Reason, Passion's strife. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Q. How many kinds of Participles ? 

215. A. There are th£ee kinds of participles ; viz., 
Imperfect, Perfect, and Compound. 

Q. The Imperfect Participle ? 

216. A. The Imperfect participle is formed by add- 
ing ing to the verb, and is generally used after the 
variations of the verb am, to represent an action that 
is, was, or will be going on, but not perfected at the 
time mentioned or implied; as, "I am writing to- 
day ;" " I was writing yesterday ;" " I will be writ- 
ing to-morrow." 

Q. Perfect Participle ? 

217. A. The Perfect participle is formed from re- 
gular verbs by adding d or ed, and is generally used 
after the variations of have and am, to describe w T hat 
is, was, or will be acted upon ; as, " Penelope isloved 
by Henry ;" " Money was stolen ; but the thief will 
be punished." 

For perfect participles not ending in d or ed, see list of irregular 
verbs. 



PARTICIPLES. 129 

Q. Compound Participle ? 

218. A. A Compound participle is composed of an 
imperfect and perfect participle, serving to express one 
action, and, at the same time, to connect it in its 
consequences or bearings with some other action or 
event; as, " The thief, having stolen the horse, was 
hanged." 

219. Rem. — Participles, like verbs, express or imply action ; but, 
unlike verbs, they have no agreement with a subject in number and 
person. Participles are generally, but verbs never are correctly, 
used after the variations of have and am. We may say, " He has 
done it," using the perfect participle done after has ; but not, 
" He has did it." Did is a verb, and must not be used after the 
variations of have and am. 

220. Rem. — Participles are sometimes found with nouns and 
pronouns used independently ; as, " Bonaparte being conquered, the 
king was restored." 

221. Rem. — Some participles, having little reference to time or 
action, are not confined to the variations of have and am, but be- 
come mere descriptives, and a few such may be compared ; as, " The 
rising sun ;" " Tottering steps ;" " An amusing story ;" " The 
lamented Worth ;" " A nail well driven" etc. 

222. Rem. — The perfect participle is often used after the varia- 
tions of am, to describe what is acted upon, not wishing to expose 
the actor ; as, " Money was stolen." Here the action is expressed ; 
but the actor, omitted. Such expressions, in the old systems of 
grammar, constitute the Passive voice. — [See Note 49 — Passive 
voice.] 

223. Rem. — Participles are so called, because they partake of 
the nature of both verbs and descriptives. 

Kule 27. 

Participles refer to nouns and pronouns. 

Model 33. — Parsing. 

" The sun is rising." (1) Rising is an imperfect 
participle, (2) refers to the noun, sun, (3) R. 27. 

Select and parse the participles in 

Exercise 87. 

1. The winds are roaring. 2. The roaring cataract strikes us 
6* 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

with awe. 3. The rippling stream pleases us. 4. My father has 
returned. 5. He was rewarded. 6. The man accustomed to his 
glass seldom reforms. 7. Having dined, I returned to school. 8. 
Having fought bravely, they were at last overcome. 9. John, hav- 
ing been beaten too violently, fainted. 10. Having slept, he re- 
covered his strength. 11. He tells an amusing story. 12. That 
was a pleasing sight. 13. He is guilty of a degrading vice. 14. 
A dissipated son grieves his parents. 15. We must not neglect 
any known duty. 16. My father took the forsaken youth into his 
own* house, and rendered to him deserved assistance. ~ 17. The men, 
being fatigued by labor, sought rest in sleep. 18. William, being 
dismissed from college, retired to the country. 19. Thomas, after 
having been repeatedly admonished to no effect, was severely and 
justly punished. 20. The tree, having been weighed down for a 
long time by an abundance of fruit, at last, fell to the ground. 21. 
The sun being risen, we departed. 22. Egypt being conquered, 
Alexander returned to Syria. 23. Shame being lost, all virtue 
is lost. 24. Wellington having returned to England, tranquillity 
was restored to France. 

Rule 28. 

Participles may govern objects. 

Model 34. 

"The professor is instructing John and I in 
music." Say, The professor is instructing John and 
me in music, R. 28. 

/should be me, being the object of the participle, 
instructing. 

Correct, also parse the participles and objects involved, 
in 

Exercise 88. 

1. I found her assisting him and she. 2. He is instructing they 
and I in translating. 3. The teacher is giving he and we lessons 
in composition. 4. Suspecting not only ye, but they also, I was 
studious to avoid all intercourse. 5. Esteeming theirselves wise, 
they became fools. 

Promiscuous examples involving the six preceding 
rules. 

Exercise 89. 

1. Scholasticus sought opportunities to display his learning, and 
by these means rendered himself ridiculous. 2. Where are these 



VERBAL NOUNS GOVERNING OBJECTS. 131 

books which you took from the desk. 3. John's, James's, and 
William's father is dead. 4. David's and Solomon's reign were 
prosperous. 5. Having invited she, you may attend yourself. 6. 
Those sort of favors is acceptable. 7. I have been waiting this 
two hours. 8. He took refuge at the governor, the king's repre- 
sentative. 9. Lucius and Alonzo's wives are cousins. 10. He was 
avoiding both she and I. 

Rule 29. 

Verbal nouns may govern objects. 

Model 35. 

" The merchant promised to assist Jane and I." 
Say, The merchant promised to assist Jane and me. 

I should be me, being the object of the verbal 
noun, assist, R. 29. [See Note 45. — The Infinitive 
Mood.] 

PASSING. 

" The merchant promised to assist Jane and me." 

(1) To is a relative, (2) shows the relation between 
the verb, promised, and the verbal noun, assist, (3) 
governs the verbal noun, assist. 

(1) Assist is a verbal noun, (3) singular number, 
(4) third person, (5) object of the relative, to, (6) R. 
15. 

(1) Jane is a noun, (2) feminine gender, (3) singu- 
lar number, (4) third person, (5) object of the verbal 
noun, assist, (6) R. 29. 

(1) And is a conjunctive, (2) connects Jane and 
me in the relation of objects to the verbal noun, assist, 
(3) R. 22. 

(1) Me is a pronoun, (3) singular number, (4) 
first person, (5) object of the verbal noun, assist, 
(6) R. 29. 

Correct the errors, also parse the relatives, verbal 
nouns, and objects, in 

Exercise 90. 

1. They promised to visit Jane and I. 2. We intend to favor 
you and they. 3. She is under obligations to tell they and we. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. The teacher promised to instruct both she and he. 5. Who 
have I reason to love, if not my father ? 

Rule 30. 

Participial nouns may govern objects. 

Model 36. 

"He is engaged in teaching they and we." Say, 
He is engaged in teaching them and us. They should 
be them, and we should be us, being objects of the 
participial noun, teaching, R. 30. 

PARSING. 

M He is engaged in teaching them and us." 

(1) Teaching is a participial noun, (3) singular 

number, (4) third person, (5) object of the relative, 

in, (6) R. 15, (7) governs them and us. 

(1) Them is a pronoun, (3) plural number, (4) 

third person, (5) object of the participial noun, 

teaching, (6) R. 30, (7) stands for the persons spoken 

of, (8) R. 16. 

(1) Us is a pronoun, (3) plural number, (4) first 
person, (5) connected by and to them, and the object 
of the participial noun, teaching, (6) R. 30, (7) stands 
for the persons speaking, (8) R. 16. 

Correct the errors, also parse the participial nouns 
and objects, in 

Exercise 91. 

1. By instructing him and I, you will improve yourself. 2. The 
teacher was engaged in teaching my brother and she. 3. He was 
sent to prepare the way by preaching repentance. 4. I could not 
avoid considering them as enemies to me, and he as a suspicious 
friend. 5. In return to your inviting me to your forest. — Pope's 
Letters. 

Rule 31. 

A perfect participle, but not the past tense, may 
be used after the variations of have and am. 



PERFECT PARTICIPLE PAST TENSE. 133 

Model 37. 
" The letter was wrote." As was is a variation of 
the verb am, the past tense " wrote " should not be 
used, but the participle written, — Thus, say " The 
letter was written," R. 31. 

Correct the errors, and parse some of the participles, in 

Exercise 92. 

1. He has became very tired of school. 2. He would have went 
with us, if we had invited him. 3. The boys have chose the part 
of honor and virtue. 4. I have not saw him since I have been in 
town. 5. Mary has did her part very well. 6. I have knew you 
a long time. 7. Charles has began to learn very rapidly. 8. The 
horses were drove too fast. 9. The child has awoke. 10. The 
instructress has bade us come into school. * 11. They have 
wrote to-day. 12. Has he ate enough ? 13. Wyman has fell 
into bad habits. 14. The birds have flew away. 15. They 
were forsaken in time of trouble. 16. Who throwed my ball 
away ? 17. William has drawn first choice. 18. The negro was 
bit by the snake. 19. The wind blowed violently last evening. 
20. He has forbore a long time. 21. The premium was gave to 
Miss Wall. 22. Your colts have grown considerably. 23. The 
boys have mown two acres since yesterday. 24. How far have 
the girls rode. 25. Has the bell rang yet ? 26. Have any more 
of the cattle ran off. 27. He had swore falsely. 28. The joint 
was very much swollen. 29. He had taken his Bible with him. 
30. The pigs have throve rapidly. 31. Minerva has wore Susan's 
dress. 32. They have sawn the lumber very well. 33. The Doc- 
tor has shaven himself twice. 34. Mr. Hamilton was not much 
smitten with Miss Leslie. 35. He had strode very rapidly. 
36. She has strove a long time. 37. The overseer has strown 
the rice very thick. 38. Alonzo has swum the river often by 
himself. 39. The child has tore my book. 

Note 41 — Use of Participles. 

" We should use participles, only, after have, had, and the verb 
to be." — E. C. Smith, p. 82. 

It is clear that we should not use verbs, but participles after the 
variations of have and am ; though, I apprehend, we may often use 
participles not preceded by any of the variations spoken of ; as, 
" I being in the way, the Lord led me to the house of my master's 
brethren." In this sentence, being is a participle, yet being is not 
preceded by any of the variations spoken of, neither, indeed, could 
it be, to preserve good sense. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"The soldiers retreating, victory was lost," retreating is a 
participle, and correctly used ; though, according to Mr. Smith's 
note, neither retreating nor any other participle should be used, 
" only, after have, had," etc. 

Rule 32. 
The past tense, not the perfect participle, should 
be used with a subject. 

Model 38. 
" Louisa given it to me." Say, Louisa gave it to 
me. Given should be gave, being used with a sub- 
ject, and not after any of the variations of have and 
am, R. 32. 

Correct the errors, and parse, at discretion, in 

Exercise 93. 

1. He become very sick of his bargain. 2. You known 
that very well. 3. He drawn a high ticket. 4. I driven 
too rapidly, consequently my horses were badly injured. 5. I 
awaked at five o'clock this morning. 6. Minerva began with 
great speed. 7. The wind blown us considerably out of our 
course. 8. Henry thrown a stone into the well. 9. William 
chosen that apple first. 10. The teacher beaten the boy severely. 

11. The tutoress bidden them to hush, but they heeded not. 

12. Who has broke my slate? John broken it. 13. When did you 
come to school ? I come last week. 14. Henry written that letter. 
15. He clad himself in fine linen. 16. He dared not trust him- 
self. 17. The ladies drunk too much wine. 18. The hawk flown 
too quick. 19. He forsook his best friends. 20. The milk frozen 
over last night. 21. She forborne patiently. 22. Helen gotten 
wet yesterday. 23. The teacher gave me too much. 24. He 
loaded his wagon with straw. 25. John run off from school. 
26. Edward shaken the fruit from the vine. 27. The barberess 
shorn his whiskers rather closely. 28. William stolen the comb 
from a stranger. 29. He spoke to me about that yesterday. 
30. The bruise swollen considerably before we returned. 31. She 
taken the paper away. 32. His horse thriven finely last week. 
33. The cows trod the young grain. 34. She woven that cloth in 
a week. 35. He graven my name on the stick for me. 36. The 
cotton grew rapidly last week. 37. The Indians hewn the boat of 
a tree. 38. Crusoe hidden himself in a cave. 39. He risen in 
great haste and departed. 40. The carpenter riven the boards 
yesterday. 41. The legislator shown his policy too plainly. 



ADVERBS QUALIFY VERBAL NOUNS. 135 

42. He stole the money from his best friends. 43. The convict 
slain the merchant with a slung-shot. 44. The farmer sown his 
seed too thick. 45. The pupil striven with great zeal. 46. Freder- 
ick swam the river seven times yesterday. 47. She torn her 
apron badly. 48. The chieftain trodden his enemies under foot. 
49. Thomas wore Rufus's coat. 

Rule 33. 

Adverbs qualify participial nouns. 

Model 39. 

" Much will depend on your reading frequent." 
Say, Much will depend on your reading frequently. 
Instead of the descriptive, frequent, use the adverb, 
frequently, to qualify the participial noun, reading, 
K. 33. 

, Correct the errors, and parse one or two sentences, in 

Exercise 94. 

1. \By behaving himself submissive, he was favored. 2. By attend- 
ing to his post prompt, he inspired confidence. 3. Much will 
depend on your pupil's composing, but more on his reading fre- 
quently."— Philos. of Met., p. 235. 

Eule 34. 

Adverbs qualify verbal nouns. 

Model 40. 

"I have endeavored to act agreeable to your 
wishes." Say, I have endeavored to act agreeably to 
your wishes. The descriptive, agreeable, should be 
changed into the adverb, agreeably, to qualify the 
verbal noun act, K. 34. 

Correct the errors, also parse the verbal nouns, and 
adverbs, in 

Exercise 95. 

1. To be successful, it is necessary to act prudent, steady, and 
vigorous in whatever you undertake. 2. Endeavor to live hereafter 
suitable to a person in thy station. 3. You cannot persuade her 
to think so mean of him. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 
Q. What is an adverbial phrase 1 

224. A. Several words being taken together as 
one word, to qualify the sense of a verb, or word of 
verbal meaning, are called adverbial phrases ; as, in 
vain ; at length ; long since ; in no wise ; long ago ; in 
fine ; in general, etc. 

Q. What is a phrase? 

225. A. A phrase is an assemblage of words not 
making complete sense of themselves. 

Point out the adverbial phrases, and tell what they 
qualify, in 

Exercise 96. 

I. He preaches in vain. 2. 1 will study grammar this week, geo- 
graphy next week. 3. At first I had a favorable opinion of him. 4. At 
last he left. 5. He has gone on high. 6. She understood it at once. 
7. My teacher will return this winter. 8. 1 will go with you the 
next time. 9. We had a great freshet last spring. 10. Jacob said, 
" I will serve seven years for Rachel. " 11. The longer I live, the 
better I am satisfied that contentment is the essence of mere 
earthly happiness. 12. The tree of life yielded her fruit every 
month. 13. He has been there three times. — Kirkham's Gram., 
p. 162. 14. Washington died long since. 15. My mother returned 
a few days ago. 16. He assisted me none at all, and at length, I 
dismissed him. 17. He admires her a good deal. 18. We will parse 
no more at present. 19. Arnold, the traitor, was despised every- 
where he went ; he found a friend nowhere. 20. He often falls now- 
adays. 21. She went wandering about all day. 22. She remained 
in college all the time. 23. He will return by-and-by. 24. They 
conduct their meetings in secret. 25. The officer helped you a little. 
26. Has Mary been anywhere to-day? 27. Industry and virtue, 
idleness and vice, go hand-in-hand. 28. The more I learn, the better 
I like it. 29. I like her the best. 30. You have asked me news a 
hundred times. — Pope. 31. The child slept very soundly all night. 
32. The faster Richard walks, the sooner he will overtake his 
brother. 33. He had a tenderness for women in general, and for 
his wife in particular, that had a softening influence on his voice 
and the glance of his eye whenever he addressed them. — Rena, 
p. 29. — Mrs. Hentz. 



RELATIVES SAME WORDS. 137 

Promiscuous examples involving the six preceding rules. 

Exercise 97. 
1. She is disposed to hate he and I. 2. By avoiding the girls and 
he, she escaped. 3. The girls have began too late. 4. He fallen into 
bad company by exposure. 5. They surpass in walking rapid. 6. 
She tried to listen attentive. *7. Who do you wish to hear ? 8. By 
misunderstanding you and I, she was offended. 9. Thompson has 
drew a gold lot. 10. He forgotten himself that time. 11. He is 
addicted to drinking frequent. 12. She promised to go rapid. 

Rule 35. 
Use relatives most expressive of the relation in- 
tended. 

Model 41. 
" We were detained to home, and disappointed in 
our walk." Say, at home, of our walk, R. 35. 

226. Rem. — We say disappointed of any thing, failing to obtain 
it ; disappointed in it, when we obtain what does not come up to 
our anticipations. 

Correct the errors, also parse the relatives and other 
words, at discretion, in 

Exercise 98. 
1. He was accused for betraying his trust. 2. 1 have no occasion 
of his services. 3. You may safely confide on him. 4. You may rely 
in what I tell you. 5. This remark is founded on truth. 6. They are 
gone in the meadow. 7. Let us walk into the house. 8. Divide this 
apple between the three boys. 9. They never quarrel among each 
other. 10. Amidst every difficulty he persevered. 11. We will now 
go above stairs. 12. His room is up-stairs. 13. He walks by a staff 
with moonlight. 14. Gold is more precious of the other metals. 
15. John is in school at the city. 16. Nouns are often formed by 
participles. IT. From misunderstanding the directions, we lost our 
way. 18. I love to walk out of a fine summer's evening. 

THE SAME WORD BELONGING TO DIFFERENT PARTS OF 
SPEECH. 

Section 2. 

Point out the parts of speech to which the italicized 

words belong, in 

Exercise 99. 
1. He is a man of great worth. 2. He is worth fifty dollars per 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

month. 3. A past transaction. 4. It was past mid-day. 5. On the 
opposite side of the river. 6. We stood opposite the Exchange. 7. 
The town was situated on both sides of the river. 8. Now he is 
both loved and respected. 9. All but me were rewarded. 10. 1 go — 
but I return. 11. If we go, we can but die. 12. They will be here 
ere another evening's close. 13. They were upon us, ere we could 
arrive at the point proposed. 14. They travel for pleasure. 15. 
He cannot be a scholar ; for he will not study. 16. All nature 
blooming like thee. 17. Like causes produce like effects. 18. He 
may go or stay, as he likes. 19. We are too apt to like pernicious 
company. 20. Every being loves its like. 21. Much money is cor- 
rupting. 22. Think much, and speak little. 23. He has seen much 
of the world. 24. Many persons are better than we supposed them 
to be. 25. The few and the many have their prepossessions. 26. 
Few days pass without some clouds. 27. Though she is rich and 
fair, yet she is not amiable. 28. They are yet young, and must sus- 
pend their judgment yet a while. 29. Though he is out of danger, 
still he is afraid. 30. With his name the mothers still their babes. 
31. The sea is still. 32. It was the still of night. 33. It hath been 
anciently reported, and still is well received. — Bacon. 34. Vapor 
ascending out of the still, etc. — Newton. 35. They still spirit 
from liquor. 

The following table may be read over carefully but not 
committed. 

Section 2 — Table of Genders. 
Exercise 100. 

1st. By different words. 

masculine. feminine. masculine. feminine. 

Chamberlain, chambermaid. Milter, spawner. 

Earl, countess. Eake, jilt. 

Gentleman, gentlewoman. Sire, dam. 

Grandsire, grandame. Stag, hind. 

2d. By difference of termination. 

masculine. feminine. masculine. feminine. 

Adjutor, adjutrix. Advoutrer, advoutress. 

Adulterer, adulteress. Anchoret, ) anoho e 

Advocate, advocatess. Anchorite,) 

Adventurer, adventuress. Arbitrator, arbitratrix, 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. 



139 



MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Avenger, 


avengeress. 


Huckster, 


huckstress, or 


Chant, chanter, chanteress. 


Hucksterer, 


hucksteress. 


Canon, 


canoness. 


Inhabiter, 


inhabitress. 


Cit, 


citess, cittess. 


" Inheritor, 


< inheritress, 
\ inheritrix. 


Czar, 


czarina. 


Coadjutor, 


coadjutrix. 


Jesuit, 


Jesuitess. 


Competitor, 


j competitress, 
( orcompetitrix 


Launderer, 


< launderess, 
I laundress. 


Cloisterer, 


cloistress. 


Landgrave, 


landgravine. 


Creditor, 


creditrix. 


Margrave, 


margravine. 


Commander, 


commandress. 


Marquis, 


marchioness. 


Demander, 


demandress. 


Moabite, 


Moabitess. 


Detractor, 


detractress. 


Murderer, 


murderess. 


Deserter, 


desertress. 


Offender, 


offendress. 


Deserter, 


j desertrice, 
( desertrix. 


Ogre, 


ogress. 


Pape, 


papess, or 


Diviner, 


divineress 


Pope, 


popess. 


Earl, count, 


countess. 


Prior, 


prioress. 


Fautor, 


fautress. 


Pythonist, 


pythoness. 


Fosterer, 
Fornicator, 


CO 

co • H 

CO CO F-t 


Soldier, 
Spectator, 


soldieress. 
< spectatress, 
5 spectatrix. 


Guardian, 


guardianess. 


Tutor, 


\ tutoress,tutress, 


Hebrew, 


Hebrewess. 


) or tutrix. 


Herd, 


herdess. 


Viscount, 


viscountess. 




Warrior, 


warrioress. 





NUMBER OF NOUNS. 

227. Obs. Speaking or writing to or about several 
persons differing either in given or family names, 
pluralize the title. 

Examples. 

The Misses Jane and Eliza Bell.— Gould Brown's Gram, of 
Grammars. The Misses Bell and Brown. — lb. Messrs. Lambert 
and Son. — lb. The Lords Calthorpe and Erskine. — lb. The 
G-enerals Benjamin and Franklin Pierce. — Bailey's Gram.,]). 131. 
Messrs. George and Thomas Anderson. — N. Butler's Gram., p. 
20. Messrs. Snow and Bice. — Covell's Digest of Eng. Gram., 
p. 38. Messrs. Pratt and Co. — lb. Messrs. Harper and Bro. 
Seals and Cox, Esqrs. Mrss. (Mistresses) Huntingdon and Liv- 
ingston. — Pierce's Gram., p. 329. Misses Foot and Williams. 
Messrs. Guthrie and Tait. — Lennie's Gram., p. 7. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

228. Obs. Speaking or writing to several persons 
of the same name, pluralize the title. 

Examples. 
Misses Clinton, allow me to present my friend, Mr. Winslow. — 
Pierce's Gram., p. 329, R. 37. Messrs. Huntingdon, may I have 
the pleasure of your company at dinner to-morrow. — lb. Mrss. 
Allen, I heard, this morning, that your husbands had just landed in 
New York. — lb. Misses Ray. — Lennie's Gram., p. 7. 

229. Obs. Speaking or writing of or about several 
persons of the same name, pluralize the name. 

Examples. 
" The Miss Homecks." — W. Irving. " The two Miss Flambo- 
roughs." — Goldsmith. " Miss Bells." — G-. Brown. " The Miss 
Browns."— S. S. Greene's Gram., p. 40. " The Miss Smiths." 
— Dr. Crombie's Gram. " The three Doctor Simpsons," — lb. 
" The two Master Wigginses." — lb. " May there not be Sir Isaac 
Newtons in every science?" — Dr. Watts. Dr. Priestly said, 
" When a name has a title prefixed to it ; as, Doctor, Miss, Mas- 
ter, etc., the plural termination affects only the latter of the two 
words ; as, * The two Doctor Littletons ;' ' The two Miss Thomp- 
sons/ " — Priestly's Gram., p. 59. ".The Miss Clarks." — San- 
born's Gram., p. 79. "If we wish to distinguish the unmarried 
from the married Howards, we call them the Miss Howards." — 
Fowle's Gram. "The Miss Mortons." — Butler's Gram., p. 20. 
" The Mr. Andersons." — lb. " The Miss Broughtons could not 
resist the example." — Miss Burney, Evelina. "The Miss 
Browns." — Maria Edgeworth. " The Miss Byleses." — Miss Les- 
lie. " The Miss Foots."— Pierce's Gram., p. 329, E. 35. " He 
paragons himself to two Lord Chancellors for law." — Pope, vol. 3, 
p. 61. "The Miss Roys." — Lennie's Gram., p. 7. "This was 
formerly the custom in writing, as shown in the practice of Burke, 
Boswell, and many others." — Webster's Die. Unabridged, Art. 
Miss. "The Mr. Hamiltons had made vacant." — Franklin's Au- 
tobiography, p. 56. 

230. Rem. — Noun is derived from the Latin word nomen, 
name ; consequently, any word, letter, figure, or character used 
merely as a name, should be parsed as a noun ; as, " Is is a verb ;" 
" Green is pleasant to the eyes ;" " Be sure to dot your i's and 
cross your t's ;" " 1 and 2 make 3 ;" "&c. is an abbreviation of etc. 

231. Obs. Mere characters, letters, figures, etc., 
are pluralized by adding apostrophes (') and s's; 
as, a's, b's, c's; l's, 2's, 3's; &'s, +'s, — 's, etc. 



NUMBER OF NOUNS. 



141 



232. Rem. — Some authors form the plural of words used merely 
as the names of themselves, by adding (') and s ; but, after very 
careful and extensive investigation, I find this usage not well sus- 
tained. 

Exercise 101. 

233. Obs. Some foreign words retain their original 
plurals ; some, also, form their plurals regularly. 

Rem. — Where two forms are given, the first is preferable. 

234. Rem. — " This tendency to regularity is, by all means, to 
be encouraged ; for a prime excellence in language is the uniformity 
of its inflections." — 1ST. Webster, p. 18. 



Addendum, 


addenda. 


Alumnus, 


alumni. 


Amanuensis, 


amanuenses. 


Analysis, 


analyses. 


Animalculum, 


animalcula, animalculae. 


Antithesis, 


antitheses. 


Apex, 


apexes, apices. 


Apparatus. 


apparatuses. 


Appendix, 


appendixes, appendices. 


Apsis, 


apses, apsides. 


Ascaris, 


ascarides. 


Arcanum, 


arcana. 


Automaton, 


automata. 


Axis, 


axes. 


Bandit, 


bandits, banditti. 


Basis, 


bases. 


Beau, 


beaus, beaux. 


Bateau, 


bateaus, bateaux. 


Billet-doux, 


billets-doux. 


Borealis, 


boreales. 


Cantharis, 


cantharides. 


Calx, 


calxes, calces. 


Calyx, 


calyxes, calyces. 


Cherub, 


cherubs, cherubim. 


Cicerone, 


ciceroni. 


Chrysalis, 


chrysalides. 


Corrigendum, 


corrigenda. 


Crisis, 


crises. 


Criterion, 


criterions, criteria. 


Datum, 


data. 


Desideratum, 


desideratums, desiderata. 


Diaeresis, 


diaereses. 



142 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Dogma, 

Effluvium, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Encomium, 

Ephemeris, 

EphemeroB, 

Epidermis, 

Erratum, 

Fascis, 

Focus, 

Formula, 

Fungus, 

Genus, 

Genius, 

Gymnasium, 

Helix, 

Hiatus, 

Hippopotamus, 

Hypothesis, 

Ignis fatuus, 

Index, 

Lamina, 

Larva, 

Magus, 

Memorandum, 

Medium, 

Metamorphosis, 

Minutia, 

Miasm, miasma, 

Momentum, 

Monsieur, 

Mr. (Master), 

Nebula, 

Nucleus, 

Oasis, 

Obolus, 

Parenthesis, 

Phasis, 

Phenomenon, 

Radius, 

Scoria, 

Scholium, 

Seraph, 

Speculum, 

Stamen, 



dogmas, dogmata. 

effluvia. 

ellipses. 

emphases. 

encomiums, encomia. 

ephemerides. 

ephemera. 

epidermides. 

errata. 



focuses, foci. 

formulas, formulae. 

funguses, fungi. 

genuses, genera. 

geniuses, genii. 

gymnasiums, gymnasia. 

helixes, helices. 

hiati. 

hippopotami. 

hypotheses. 

ignes fatui. 

indexes, indices. 

laminae. 

larvae. 

magi. 

memorandums, memoranda. 

mediums, media. 

metamorphoses. 

minutiae. 

miasms, miasmata. 

momentums, momenta. 

messieurs. 

Messrs. (Messieurs). 

nebulae. 

nuclei. 

oases. 

oboli. 

parentheses. 

phases. 

phenomena. 

radiuses, radii. 

scoriae. 

scholiums, scholiae. 

seraphs, seraphim. 

specula. 

stamens, stamina. 



Stigma, 
Stimulus, 


'ilUlNUUJNO. 

stigmas, stigmata, 
stimuli. 


Stratum, 
Thesis, 


stratums, strata, 
theses. 


Vertex, 
Vertebra, 


vertexes, vertices, 
vertebrae. 


Vortex, 


vortexes, vortices. 


Virtuoso, 


virtuosi. 


Viscus, 


viscera. 



143 



It might be well for the class to parse the pronouns in- 
volved in the examples connected with the following ob- 
servations : 

PRONOUNS. 

235. Obs. The noun standing before the pronoun 
is called the antecedent ; standing after the pronoun, 
the subsequent ; as, " Joseph is diligent, he will im- 
prove ;" "Who will improve ? Joseph" 

236. Obs. Pronouns are sometimes taken in an 
indefinite or general sense, when it is not necessary 
to denote any particular person ; as, " He that hates 
knowledge spares his words." 

237. Obs. One pronoun often stands for another 
pronoun ; as, " He that arms his intent with virtue 
is invincible." 

238. Obs. The antecedent is sometimes omitted ; 
as, " 'Who steals my purse steals trash,' that is, he 
who, or the person who." — Butler's Gram., p. 47. 

239. Obs. The pronoun is sometimes omitted ; 
as, "I saw the man I wanted to see," that is, I 
saw the man whom I wanted to see. 

240. Obs. Pronouns standing for nouns equally 
applicable to both sexes, as, teacher, friend, pupil, 
etc., are generally masculine, unless such terms are 
especially applicable to females. 

241. Obs. Pronouns standing for nouns (generic 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

names) including both sexes are more generally 
masculine, though sometimes feminine ; as, "Every 
man should provide for himself;" " Doth the hawk 
fly by thy wisdom, and stretch her wings to the 
south." — Job. 

242. Rem. — Goose and Duck, though feminine, are used 
generically. 

243. Obs. Pronouns standing for the names of 
animals whose sex is unknown, or not regarded, 
but which are remarkable for size, strength, fidelity, 
boldness, as, the elephant, horse, dog, etc., gene- 
rally take the masculine gender. 

244. Obs. Pronouns standing for the names of 
animals whose sex is unknown, or not regarded, 
but which are remarkable for weakness, beauty, 
mildness, or timidity, generally take the feminine 
gender ; as, " Gro thou to the ant, thou sluggard, 
consider her ways, and be wise." — Prov., v, 6. 

245. Obs. A Pronoun may stand for an idea ex- 
pressed by a phrase or sentence ; as, " The bill was 
rejected by the Lords, which excited no small degree 
of jealousy and discontent." 

246. Obs. Though it generally stands for nouns 
destitute of, or undistinguished by, gender ; as, 
" James took the book, because it pleased him ;" 
" I love the child, because it is so amiable," yet, it 
being the perfect participle of the Moeso-Gothic 
verb hiatan, formerly written hit, meaning the said, 
and when used in that latitude of meaning, may 
stand for nouns of either gender or number; as, 
" It is the boy ;" " It was the girl ;" " It was the 
boys or girls, who did it," that is, the said boys, or 
girls spoken of. 

247. Obs. A Pronoun may sometimes stand for 
ao idea expressed by a descriptive ; as, " Judas de- 



PRONOUNS. 145 

clared him innocent, which he could not be, had he, 
in any respect, deceived the disciples." — Porteus' 
Lect. " Here which represents the attribute inno- 
cent.^ — See Webster's Gram., p. 36. 

248. Obs. That is preferred to who or which after 
the superlative degree ; especially when the pro- 
noun is taken in a restrictive sense : " He is the 
wisest man whom the world ever produced." Say, 
He is the wisest man that the world ever produced. 
" Humility is one of the most amiable qualities 
which we can possess." Say, Humility is one of 
the most amiable qualities that we can possess. 

249. Obs. That is preferred to who or which after 
the definitive same : " He is the same man whom 
we met yesterday." Say, He is the same man that 
we me«t yesterday. " This is the same woman 
whom we saw." Say, This is the same woman that 
we saw. 

250. Obs. That is preferred to who or which, in 
speaking of both persons and things : " The man 
and the beast, which I saw, perished." Say, The man 
and the beast, that I saw, perished. " The woman 
and the estate, which became his portion, were too 
much for his moderation." Say, The woman and 
the estate, that became his portion, etc. 

251. Obs. Pronouns are used to prevent the re- 
petition, or inelegant use, of nouns ; as, " The man 
is happy, because he is benevolent ;" " I instruct 
my classes ;" " You learn well." 

252. Obs. Avoid unnecessary pronouns, as pro- 
nouns neither preventing the repetition nor the in- 
elegant use of nouns are unnecessary : " Many words 
they darken speech." Say, Many words darken 
speech. Leaving out they. " I saw her the queen." 
Say, I saw the queen. 

7 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

253. Obs. Place Pronouns near their nouns. 

254. Rem. — This observation is important, in order to avoid 
obscurity, or any doubt, as to the noun for which the pronoun 
stands : " The house belongs to my brother, which is built of 
brick." Say, The house, which is built of brick, belongs to my 
brother. "The church stands on the hill, which has the fine 
steeple." Say, The church, which has the fine steeple, stands on the 
hill. 

255. Obs. Having different persons connected, 
place the second person first, but the first person 
last : " I and my father were riding out." Say, 
My father and I were riding out. 

256. Rem. — This observation is based on the principle, that it 
is more polite to mention the names of others before your own. 

257. Obs. Pronouns standing for different per- 
sons agree with the first person in preference to the 
second and third, and with the second rather than 
the third : " You, he, and I must share it between 
you." Say, You, he, and I must share it between us. 

" Both you and he will be disappointed in their 
object." Say, Both you and he will be disappointed 
in your object. 

The following examples involve the seven observations 
immediately preceding : 

Exercise 102. 

1. He is the bravest man which the age has produced. 2. This 
is the same horse which we saw yesterday. 3. He spoke largely 
of the men and things, which he had seen. 4. Ann she married 
last night. 5. He is like a beast of prey, that is void of compas- 
sion. 6. I and Jane were invited. 7. You and I will devote 
your leisure hours to study. 8. This is the most splendid city 
which I ever visited. 9. The same whom John saw also in the 
sun. 10. The lady and the lap-dog, which we saw, have disap- 
peared. 11. The master dismissed his servant, whom none believed 
to be capable of an unjust act. 12. There is a certain majesty in 
simplicity, which is far above the quaintness of wit. 13. Two 
premiums were given to me and George. 14. Both you and he 
will be disappointed in their object. 15. The kiug he is just. 



RELATION. 147 

RELATION. 

258. 06s. Nouns and pronouns neither govern- 
ing nor being governed are used independently: 
1st, The titles of books, cards, etc. ; as, " Smith's 
Grammar;" " Webster's Dictionary" 2nd, The 
names of firms; as, "Pope and Malone ;" " Belser 
and Rice ;" 3rd, Names simply addressed ; as, "John, 
you should mind your parent ;" " O ! Liberty, Friends, 
Ladies and Gentlemen;" 4th, Nouns or pronouns 
used with participles, but not having verbs ; as, 
"The soldiers retreating, victory was lost;" "We 
being sick, they do as they please." 

Eule 36. 

Pronouns used independently should have the 
form of the subject. 

Model 42. 

" Her being sick, I had no one to help me." Say, 
She being sick, I had no one to help me. Her should 
be She, being used independently, R. 36. 

PARSING. 

" She being sick, they do as they please." (1) 
She is a pronoun, (2) feminine gender, (3) singular 
number, (4) third person, (5) used independently, 
(6) Obs. 258, (7) stands for the person spoken of, 
(8) R. 16. 

Correct the errors, also parse the independent nouns and 
pronouns, as well as the participles, in 

Exercise 103. 

1. Him being destroyed, the remainder of the robbers made 
their escape. 2. Her being dismissed, the rest of the scholars be- 
haved well. 3. Me being sick, they do as they please. 4. I shall 
make the inquiry, them being at home. 5. Whose gay top shall 
tremble, he descending. 6. Jesus had conveyed himself away, a 
multitude being in that place. — John, v, 13. 7. 1 am not mad, 
most noble Festus. 8. These are thy glorious works, Parent of 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

good. 9. William, give me your knife. 10. Napoleon being 
conquered, peace was restored. 11. Ladies and Gentlemen, I 
rely entirely on your candor. 

Exception. Pronouns of the first person, following exclama- 
tions, have the form of the object, though used independently ; as, 
" O me /" " Ah me /" " Oh us /" 

Correct the errors in the following : 

1. Ah I ! must I endure all this ? 2. Oh happy we ! surrounded 
with so many blessings. 

Rule 37. 

That points out the former or more distant ; this, 
the latter or nearer of two persons or things. 

Model 43. 

" Both wealth and poverty are temptations : this 
tends to excite pride ; that, discontent." As wealth, 
the first-mentioned, excites pride — say, that tends 
to excite pride; this, discontent, This referring to 
poverty, the last-mentioned, R. 37. 

Correct the errors, and parse the nouns and definitives, 
also other words, at discretion, in 

Exercise 104. 

1. Memory and fore-cast just returns engage : 
This pointing back to youth ; that, on to age. 

2. Hope is as strong an incentive to action as fear : 
This is the anticipation of good ; that, of evil. 

3. And, reason raise o'er instinct as ^ou can : 

In this 'tis God directs ; in that 'tis man. — Pope. 

Eule 38. 

Those points out the former or more distant ; these, 
the latter or nearer of two classes of persons or 
things. 

Model 44. 

" Farewell my friends ; farewell my foes : 
My peace with these ; my love with those."— Burns. 

These points out foes, the last-mentioned ; those 



PRONOUNS VERBS. 149 

points out friend, the first-mentioned, therefore the 
sentence is correct, R. 38. 

Correct the errors, and parse, at discretion, in 

Exercise 105. 

1. The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy : but we 
should not, therefore, account those happy ; and, these miserable. 

2. Then palaces and lofty domes arose : 

These for devotion ; and for pleasure those. — Pope. 

Eule 39. 
Pronouns standing for nouns preceded by the 
definitives each, every, or no, though connected by 
and, should be singular, unless no is followed by a 
plural noun. 

260. Rem. — Nouns preceded by each, every, and no, are separ- 
ately considered, hence the pronoun should be singular. 

Model 45. 
"Let each esteem others better than themselves." 
Say, Let each esteem others better than himself, or 
herself, R. 39. 

Correct the errors, and parse the nouns and pronouns 
involved in the corrections, in 

Exercise 106. 

1. Each beast, and each insect, is happy in their own. 2. Every 
plant, and every flower, proclaims their maker's praise. 3. Every 
man should be rewarded according to his works. 4. Let each of 
them be heard in their turn. 5. No thought, no word, no action, 
can escape in the judgment, whether they be good or evil. 

Rule 40. 
Verbs having subjects preceded by the definitives 
each, every, or no, though connected by and, should 
be singular, unless no is followed by a plural noun. 

261. Rem. — The verb should be singular, because these defini- 
tives show that the subjects are taken separately. 

262. Rem.— Verbs having subjects of different persons agree 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

with the first in preference to the second and third ; and with the 
second rather than the third. 

263. Obs. Verbs having subjects, names of the 
same person or thing, though connected by and, 
should be singular. 

Model 46. 
" Every man, and every woman, and every child, 
were taken." Say, Every man, and every woman, 
and every child, was taken, R. 40. As the nouns 
man, woman, and child, are, by the use of every, sepa- 
rately considered, the verb should be singular. 
" There go that benevolent man and scholar." Say, 
There goes that benevolent man and scholar, Obs. 
263. 

PARSING. 

" There goes that benevolent man and scholar." 
(1) Man is a noun, (2) masculine gender, (3) singular 
number, (4) third person, (5) subject to goes. 

(1) Scholar is a noun, (2) masculine gender, (3) 
singular number, (4) third person, (5) subject to 
goes. Scholar is only another name for man, the 
same individual. 

(1) Goes is a verb, (2) present tense, (3) singular 
number, (4) third person, (5) agrees with man and 
scholar, two names of the same individual, (6) R. 13. 

Correct the errors, also parse the subjects and verbs, in 

Exercise 107. 

1 . Each man, and each woman, were particularly alluded to in 
the report of the affair. 2. Every tree, stick, and twig, were con- 
sumed. 3. No wife, no mother, were there to comfort him. 4. Every 
house, and even every cottage, was plundered. 5. Each day, and 
hour, and moment, are to be properly employed. 6. No oppressor, 
no tyrant, triumphs there. 7. Pliny, the philosopher and naturalist, 
have greatly enriched science. 8. In that house lives a great and 
distinguished scholar and statesman. 



VERBS WITH PHRASES. 151 

Promiscuous examples involving the six preceding rules. 

Exercise 108. 

1. This originated from mistake. 2. Him only excepted, who was 
a murderer. 3. He was taken with stratagem, and killed by a 
sword. 4. Her being destroyed, all this will soon follow. 5. Each 
day, and hour, and moment, are to be diligently improved. 6. Hand 
me this pen on the desk ; for I cannot write with that pencil in my 
hand. 7. For beast and bird : these to their grassy couch ; those 
to their nests repair. 8. Every good act, and every good purpose, 
will receive their reward. 

Rule 41. 

A verb agreeing with an idea conveyed by a single 
phrase or sentence should be singular. 

Model 47. 
" To lie are base." Say, To lie is base. Are should 
be is, to be singular, to agree with the idea conveyed 
by the phrase, "to lie," R. 41. 

Correct the errors, and parse a portion of the exam- 
ples, in 

Exercise 109. 

1. To excel require much exertion. 2. To obtain the praise of 
men were their only object. 3. That it is our duty to promote 
peace and harmony among men, admit of no dispute. 4. To live 
soberly, righteously, and piously are required of all men. 

Rule 42. 
Verbs agreeing with ideas conveyed by phrases 
or sentences, connected by and, should be plural. 

Model 48. 
"To profess and to possess, is very different 
things." Is should be are, to be plural, to agree 
with the ideas conveyed by the two phrases, M to 
profess, and to possess," R. 42. 

Correct the errors, and parse the words involved in the 
corrections, in 

Exercise 110. 
1. To give good gifts, and to be benevolent, is often different 
things. 2. To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

God, are duties of universal obligation. 3. To be wise in our own 
eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, and to be wise in the 
sight of our Creator, is three things so very different as rarely to 
coincide. 

Rule 43. 
A verb agreeing with an idea conveyed by one of 
several phrases or sentences connected by either, 
neither, or, or nor, should be singular. 

Model 49. 
•'That a drunkard should be poor, or that a fop 
should be ignorant, are not strange." Are should 
be is, to be singular, to agree in number with the 
idea in the last phrase, R. 43. 

Correct the errors, and parse, at discretion, in 

Exercise 111. 

1. To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, are contemptible 
perfidy. 2. To practice tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, 
are great injustice. 

264. Rem. — An idea expressed by a whole phrase or sentence 
may be the object of a verb, participle, verbal noun, participial 
noun, or relative ; as, " George Russell loves to study ;" " James 
Hool is beginning to parse well." 

HELPING VERBS. 

265. Obs. When two verbs are used to express 
the same action, the first is called a helping, the sec- 
ond the pincipal, verb ; as, " I do learn ;" " He did 
read." 

266. Rem. — Do and did are helping, learn and read are prin- 
cipal, verbs. Do and did are used for the sake of emphasis. 

267. Obs. Shall, in the first person, simply fore- 
tells ; as, "I shall go to town to-morrow ;" " We 
shall not return before Monday." But shall, in the 
second and third persons, is used to threaten, com- 
mand, or promise ; as, " They or you shall be re- 



HELPING VERBS. 153 

warded ;" " Thou shalt not steal ;" " The soul that 
sinneth shall die." 

268. Obs. Will, in the first person, expresses a 
promise or resolution ; as, "I will make of thee a 
great nation ;" " I will write." But will, in the 
second and third persons, commonly foretells ; as, 
" He will reward the righteous ;" " You will repent 
of that." 

269. Obs. If you wish simply to express a future 
action or event, use shall in the first person, will in 
the second and third persons; thus, Sing., " I shall 
go, You will go, He will go ;" Flu., " We shall go, 
You will go, They will go." 

270. Obs. Wishing to make a command, threat, 
or promise, use will in the first person, shall in the 
second and third persons ; thus, Sing., " I will write, 
You shall write, He shall write ;" Plu., u We will 
write, You shall write, They shall write." 

271. Obs. May, can, might, could, would, and 
should expressing liberty, power, possibility, ten- 
dency, duty, purpose, doubt, uncertainty, contin- 
gency, etc., are not confined to any tense, though 
more generally found in the future. 

272. Rem. — When a helping verb is used, the principal verb 
undergoes no change for tense, number, or person, such changes 
being marked upon the helping verb ; as, " Miss Lucy does learn 
rapidly." Here the helping verb, does, undergoes a change to de- 
note tense, number, and person. But when no helping verb is 
employed, the principal verb undergoes a change to denote tense, 
number, and person ; as, " Miss Mary learns very rapidly." 

273. Rem. — The principal verb is often omitted ; as, " Who 
wrote that letter ? John did ;" i. e., John did write it. " Help 
me with my task. I cannot ;" i. e., I cannot help you. 

274. Rem. — Helping verbs are frequently understood ; as, " I 
will assist him when he comes. 1 * Such examples frequently take 
the form of the present tense. Helping verbs are also omitted in 
commanding, exhorting, entreating, and permitting ; as, " Lord, 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

forgive my sins." u The auxiliary is omitted, also, after a com- 
mand."-— Webster's Gram., p. 142. 

OBSERVATIONS ON TENSE. 

275. Rem. — Tense refers not to the action, but to the time of 
the action. Tense means time, or division of time, and not action ; 
hence a difference between present time or tense, and present action. 
An action may have long since passed in a period of time which 
has not yet closed, and may not close for a long time to come ; 
consequently, as tense has reference to the period of such action, 
the tense is present, because it includes the present moment, though 
the action has long since passed ; as, " John has written to-day," 
here has is present tense, because the time — to-day — is present, 
though the action is passed, and is expressed by the past or perfect 
participle written. 

276. Obs. An existing custom or general truth 
may be expressed by the present tense ; as, " He 
frequently rides;" "Seneca reasons and moralizes 
well." 

277. Obs. The present tense sometimes expresses 
past action, in order to give animation to discourse ; 
as, " They dismount ; they fly forward to the front ; 
he enters the territory of the peaceful inhabitants ; 
he fights ; he conquers ; takes an immense booty, 
which he divides amongst his soldiers, and returns 
home to enjoy an empty triumph." 

278. Obs. The present tense form of the verb, 
preceded by when, before, if, after, as soon as, till, may 
be used to express a future action ; as, "When he 
arrives, we shall hear the news." 

279. Obs. Sometimes the past tense form of the 
verb is used to express a present or future action ; 
as, "I wish I was well ;" " Was I to go I would 

assist." 

280. Obs. Verbs frequently express an action 
which is present, past, or future, in reference to 
some other action. 



CONNECTION BETWEEN VERBS, ETC. 155 

281. Obs. Verbs sometimes express an action with- 
out re erence to any particular period of time ; con- 
sequently, the tense of such verbs cannot be deter- 
mined very definitely. 

CONNECTION BETWEEN VERBS AND PARTICIPLES. 

282.. Obs. Participles are often used in connection 
with verbs, to describe more minutely in reference 
to the time of an action. 

283. Obs. To express an action as simply past, use 
the past tense of the verb ; as, " I wrote a letter :" 
but to express an action which was going on at the 
time of some other action, use the past tense and 
imperfect participle ; as, "I was writing when you 
came from town." 

283. Obs. To express an action as perfected in re- 
ference to another past action, use the past tense 
and the perfect participle ; as, " I had finished my 
letter before he arrived." (See Note 22. — Plu- 
perfect Tense.) 

284. Obs. To express an action that is going on at 
the time of the speaking, use the present tense, and 
the imperfect participle ; as, "I am reading at this 
moment ;" "He is writing now." 

285. Obs. To express an action as having passed 
in any period embracing the present moment, use 
the present tense, which shows that the period of 
time alluded to has not closed, and the perfect 
participle, which, in connection with the present 
tense, shows that though the action has been per- 
fected, yet the period of time embracing it is not 
concluded ; as, "I have done my task this week." 

286. Obs. Have, the present tense form of the verb, 
denotes that the period of time embracing the action 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

includes the present moment. The perfect participle 
done shows that the action is perfect, though the 
time in which the action was perfected is not past, 
nor perfect. (See Note 21. — Perfect Tense.) 

287. Obs. To express an action that will be going 
on at or before another action or event, use the im- 
perfect participle with the future tense of the verb ; 
as, " I will be ciphering when he returns ;" "She 
will be writing before the end of the term." 

288. Obs. To express an action that will be per- 
fected at or before some other action or event, use 
the perfect participle with the future tense of the 
verb ; as, "I shall have written my letter at or be- 
fore the time the stage leaves." This is called the 
second future in the prevailing systems ; but would 
it not be better to say, "I shall finish my letter 
before the stage leaves" ? (See Note 23. — Second 
Future.) 

Exercise 112. 

Conjugation of am in the Solemn or Quaker form. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I am, 1st Pers., We are, 

2d " Thou art, 2d " Ye are, 

3d " He is ; 3d " They are. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I was, 1st Pers., We were, 

2d " Thou wast, 2d " Ye were, 

3d " He was; 3d " They were. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Per., I might or could be, 1st. Per., We might or could be, 
2d " Thou mightst or couldst be, 2d " Ye might or could be, 
3d " He might or could be ; 3d " They might or could be. 



SOLEMN OR QUAKER FORM OP CONJUGATION. 157 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, being ; Perfect, been ; Compound, having been. 

289. Rem. — The solemn, or Quaker form, is seldom used, except 
in prayers, poetry, and burlesque style ; though formerly the only 
correct style, as old authors show, for instance, the Bible, Shak- 
speare, etc. 

Conjugation of the regular verb learn with the help- 
ing verb do. 

Exercise 113. 

present tense. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I do learn, 1st Pers., We do learn, 

2d " You do learn, 2d " You do learn, 

3d " He does learn ; 3d " They do learn. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I did learn, 1st Pers., We did learn, 
2d " You did learn, 2d " You did learn, 
3d " He did learn; 3d " They did learn. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I shall or will learn, 1st Pers., We shall or will learn, 
2d " You shall or will learn, 2d " You shall or will learn, 
3d " He shall or will learn ; 3d f They shall or will learn. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, learning ; Perfect, learned ; Compound, having 
learned. 

290. Obs. The future tense may be formed by the 
use of any of the helping verbs shall, will, may, can, 
must, might, could, would, and should. 

Exercise 114. 
Solemn or Quaker form of conjugation. 

PRESENT tense. 

Singular No. Plural No 

1st Pers., I love, 1st Pers., We love, 

2d " Thou lovest, 2d " Ye love, 

3d " Heloveth; 3d " They love. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I loved, 1st Pers., We loved, 

2d " Thou lovedst, 2d " Ye loved, 

3d " He loved ; 3d " They loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I shall or will love, 1st Pers., We shall or will love, 
2d H Thou shalt or wilt love, 2d " Ye shall or will love, 
3d " He shall or will love ; 3d " They shall or will love. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Imperfect, loving ; Perfect, loved ; Compound, having loved. 

Solemn or Quaker form of conjugation with the helping 
verb do. 

Exercise 115. 

present tense. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I do learn, 1st Pers., We do learn, 

2d " Thou dost learn, 2d " Ye do learn, 

3d " He doth learn; 3d " They do learn. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Pers., I did learn, 1st Pers., We did learn, 

2d " Thou didst learn, 2d Pers., Ye did learn, 

3d " He did learn; 3d " They did learn. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular No. Plural No. 

1st Per., I may or can learn, 1st Per., We may or can learn, 

2d " Thou mayst or canst learn, 2d " Ye may or can learn, 
3d " He may or can learn ; 3d " They may or can learn. 

Participles. 

Imperfect, learning; Perfect, learned; Compound, having 
learned. 

Note 42 — Impersonal Verbs. 

In most of our grammars, we find the term impersonal applied 
to a class of verbs defective in person, such having only the third 
person ; as, " It rains ;" " It hails." Bullions, on page 102, speaking 



IMPERSONAL VERBS PAST TENSE. 159 

of these verbs, says, " They are always in the third person singu- 
lar," etc. If these verbs, as Dr. Bullions says, are always in the 
third person, etc., where is the propriety in denominating them 
impersonal, a term derived from the two Latin words in, not, and 
personalis, person, thus implying a total absence of persons, not- 
withstanding they are all of the third person ? The term imper- 
sonal is manifestly improperly applied to any class of verbs in 
English, nor, indeed, is there really any such class of verbs in any 
language as impersonal. 

What a contradiction, to say, that " they are always in the 
third person," yet call them impersonal, i. e., without a person. 

a As to the verbs, which some grammarians have called imper- 
sonal, there are, in fact, no such things in the English language." 
— Cobbett. 

" This form is commonly called impersonal ; but this denomi- 
nation is incorrect and inadmissible, since these verbs are really in 
the third person." — De Lacy. 

"The term impersonal is commonly applied to this class of 
verbs ; but a word which is always employed in one of the three 
grammatical persons, cannot, with any degree of propriety, be said 
to be without person." — Wells, p. 116. 

Hiley denominates these verbs monopersonal ; but Wells and 
many others, perhaps seeing the impropriety of the term imper- 
sonal, style them unipersonal. Monopersonal and unipersonal, 
differing only in derivation, and though some improvement on the 
old term impersonal, are still wanting in precision ; for, if it is im- 
portant to know that a verb has person, it must be equally import- 
ant to know what person ; and as these verbs want both the 
first and second persons, I prefer to teach what is simply the fact, 
that they are used only in the third person. De Lacy, Sutcliffe, and 
Morgan call them verbs in the third person. 

" The doctrine of Impersonal Yerbs has been justly rejected by 
the best grammarians, both ancient , and modern." — Heemes, 
p. 1*75, 

Eule 44. 

The Past Tense expresses an action as simply past ; 
but to connect a past action with any period em- 
bracing the present moment, use the present tense 
and perfect participle. 

Model 50. 
11 As Dr. Wallis hath long ago observed." — Lowth. 
As the time of Dr. Wallis's observation is past, 



160 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



use the past tense, and say, " As Dr. Wallis long 
ago observed," R. 44. " I read the President's 
message this week." The act of reading the message 
has past ; but this week, the time of reading, as it in- 
cludes the present moment, is not past, but present ; 
therefore, use the present tense, and perfect parti- 
ciple, and say, " I have read the President's message 
this week, R. 44. (See Note 21. — Perfect Tense.) 

Correct the errors, and parse the verbs and partici- 
ples, in 

Exercise 116. 

1. Philosophers have made great discoveries in the last century. 
2. I remember the family more than twenty years. 3. I have 
seen him last summer. 4. 1 visited Washington this year. 5. I 
have seen the work more than a month. 6. The Druid priests 
claimed great power. 7. The priests, in all ages, claimed great 
power. 8. This mode of expression was formerly much admired. 
9. He has been much afflicted all his life. 

It is not necessary to study this section so thoroughly 
as the first section. 





Exercise 117. 




A List of Irregular Verbs. 




Section 2. 




PRESENT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Bear, 


bore (bare J), 


borne, born.* 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


Bend (un-), E. 


bent, 


bent. 


Bereave, R. 


bereft, 


bereft. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bind (un-, re-), 


bound, 


bound (bounden J). 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Build, R. 


built, 


built. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



161 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Cut, 

Deal, R. 

Dig, R. 

Dwell, R. 

Dream, R. 

Drop, R. 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Find, 

Flee, 

Fling, 

Gild, R. 

Gird (be-, un-), 

Grind, 

Hang, R. 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Knit, R. 

Kneel, R. 

Lade, 

Lead (miV), 

Leave, 

Lend, 

Let, 

light, R. 

Lose, 

Make, 

Meet, 

Mean, 

Pay (re-), 

Quit,R. 

Read, 

Rend, 

Rid, 

Seek, 

Sell, 

Send, 

Shape (mis-), R. 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 

Shoot (over-), 

Shrink, 



R. 



PAST TENSE. 


PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 


cut, 


cut. 


dealt, 


dealt. 


dug, 


dug. 


dwelt, 


dwelt. 


dreamt, 


dreamt. 


dropt, 


dropt. 


fed, 


fed. 


felt, 


felt. 


found, 


found. 


fled, 


fled. 


flung, 


flung. 


gilt, 


gilt. 


girt, 


girt. 


ground, 


ground. 


hung, 


hung. 


hit, 


hit. 


held, 


held(holdent). 


hurt, 


hurt. 


kept, 


kept. 


knit, 


knit. 


knelt, 


knelt. 


laded 


laded, laden. 


led, 


led. 


left, 


left. 


lent, 


lent. 


let, 


let. 


lighted, lit, 


lighted, lit. 


lost, 


lost. 


made, 


made. 


met, 


met. 


meant, 


meant. 


paid, 


paid. 


quit, 


quit. 


read, 


read. 


rent, 


rent. 


rid, 


rid. 


sought, 


sought. 


sold, 


sold. 


sent, 


sent. 


shaped, 


shaped (shapen $) 


shed, 


shed. 


shone, 


shone. 


shod, 


shod. 


shot, 


shot. 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 



162 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



RESENT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. PEE 


FEOT PARTICIPLE. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, E. 


slit, 


slit (slitten J). 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Spend (mis-), 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, E. 


spilt, 


spilt. 


Spin, 


spun (span J), 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit (spat J), 


spit (spitten J). 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread (over-, be-), 


spread, 


spread. 


Stand (with-,under-) . 


, stood, 


stood. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung (stang £), 


stung. 


String 


strung, 


strung. 


Strew (be-), E. 


strewed, 


strewed, strown. 


Strew, E. 


strowed, 


strowed, strown. 


Sweat, E. 


sweat, 


sweat. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Teach (un-,mis-), 


taught, 


taught. 


Tell (fore-). 


told, 


told. 


Think (be-), 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Wet, 


wet, 


wet. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind (un-), E. 


wound, 


wound. 


Work, E. 


worked (wrought $)> 


worked. 


Wring, 


wrung, 
Note 43 — Mood. 


wrung. 



" Mood or mode is a particular form of the verb, showing the 
manner in which the being, action, or passion is represented." — 
Murray's Gram., p. 52. 

" A particular form," etc. Let us see. Latin has four moods, 
and four corresponding forms ; viz., Indicative, amo ; Subjunctive, 
amem ; Imperative, ama or amato ; Infinitive, amare. Greek has 
fiv.e moods ; Indicative, wnrco ; Optative, rvTtrcoi/Lti ; Imperative, 
rvTirs ; Infinitive, rvTtrscv. The Subjunctive and Indicative have 
the same form for the present tense, singular number, first person ; 
but, in the plural, they differ ; they also differ in person, and in some 
of their tenses. To be more brief, the Hebrew has three modal 
forms, and three moods — Indicative, Imperative, and Infinitive. 
The Spanish language, having five modal forms, claims five moods. 



MOOD OF THE VERB. 163 

The German, with four variations in some verbs, consequently has 
four moods. 

These references, to the grammars of both ancient and modern 
languages, show the variations in the forms of verbs to be the only 
true foundations for moods ; as, you observe, these languages have 
no more moods than they have corresponding forms of the verb. 
But how is it that English grammarians generally assign five 
moods ? Has the English verb five " particular forms," distinctive 
of the five moods ? Does the verb undergo five changes, to sup- 
port this classification of moods ? If so, what, and where, are they ? 
I have not seen them, after a diligent search of many years. If 
mood is a particular form of the verb, it is evident verbs may have 
as many moods as particular forms — but neither more nor less — to 
be consistent with the definition, and with the usage of both ancient 
and modern languages. 

Particular form ! "Particular means not general — noting or 
designating a simple thing, by way of distinction." — Webster. 
Then, how can that form, which is not peculiar to any one special- 
ly, but common to a great number, be particular ? 

Murray further remarks : " The nature of a mood may be more 
intelligibly explained to the scholar by observing that it consists 
in the change which the verb undergoes to signify various inten- 
tions of the mind, and various modifications of action." Do verbs 
undergo any such changes ? They evidently do not. Consequently, 
the nature of moods is not "intelligibly explained "'by any such 
remarks. Again, would five moods, or five changes, be sufficient to 
signifiy various intentions of the mind, and various modifications of 
action ? Obviously, they would not, neither are the intentions and 
modifications alluded to signified by any such means. 

Kirkham says, " The mood or mode of a verb means the man- 
ner," etc. Why, then, have not verbs as many moods as they have 
manners of representing action ? He further says, " Were we to 
assign a particular name to every change in the mood or manner 
of representing action or being, the number of moods in our lan- 
guage would amount to many hundreds." Then, why assign only 
five ? This must be a very deficient representation. Is it not 
equally important to designate all these changes ? " But this prin- 
ciple of division and arrangement, if followed out in detail, would 
lead to great perplexity, without producing any beneficial result." 
Then it might be well to lay aside such a dangerous and unprofit- 
able principle. You may be assured a correct principle will work 
well. 

Again, Murray says, " Some writers have given our moods a 
much greater extent than we have assigned to them." If English 
verbs are entitled to moods, why should they not be assigned to 
the full extent ? He further remarks, " It is necessary to set pro- 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

per bounds to this business, so as not to occasion obscurity and 
perplexity, when we mean to be simple and perspicuous." The 
moods are well calculated to occasion obscurity and perplexity. 
" Instead, therefore, of making a separate mood for every auxiliary 
verb, and introducing moods Interrogative, Optative, Promissive, 
Hortative, Precative, etc. We have exhibited such only as are 
obviously distinct." — See Murray's Gram,, p. 56. As Murray has 
exhibited such moods only as are obviously distinct, what shall be 
done with the many moods, which, he has led us to infer, are ob- 
viously indistinct ? How shall verbs be classified, which belong 
to these many hundred obviously indistinct moods ? Shall verbs 
belonging to indistinct moods be placed in moods obviously dis- 
tinct 1 If it is important that some verbs should have moods, why 
not have moods for all? The modern languages of Europe, follow- 
ing their venerable predecessors, the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, so 
highly esteemed for classic excellence, have only as many moods as 
they have modal forms, and know nothing of the practice of 
making moods by auxiliary verbs. This practice is an innovation 
on the settled usages of languages, and ought to be discarded 
forthwith. 

" We are sometimes informed, that the different moods may be 
distinguished by certain signs — Conjunctions, or auxiliary verbs. 
The Subjunctive has for its signs if, that, though, lest, unless, 
except, and whether. The Potential has for its signs the auxili- 
aries may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. 

Now, determine the moods by the signs, in the following ex- 
amples : " Let me know if I may return ;" " I wish to know, 
whether I can go or not ;" " He knows that he should not go ;" 
" Though one might arise from the grave ;" etc. " If he would 
walk f etc. 

Here, you observe, the conjunctions determine the verbs to be 
in the Subjunctive ; but the auxiliaries are signs of the Potential 
mood. By which .shall we be influenced ? " John, you must go 
home." I command John. The Imperative mood is used for com- 
manding; but must is an auxiliary — one of the signs of the 
Potential mood. Now, in which mood is " must go ?" The moods 
harmonize in but one incidental property — they are uniformly in- 
consistent. There is not the slightest shadow of a foundation for 
the division of verbs into moods, and, to entangle the beautiful 
machinery of our grammar with this clumsy apparatus, is to pro- 
duce confusion and to prevent understanding. 

Note 44 — The Imperative Mood. 

" The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, exhorting, en- 
treating, or permitting." — Murray, p. 53. 
Imperative, from the Latin impero, I command, and mood, 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 165 

meaning manner, hence, Imperative Mood means imperative man- 
ner. " The Imperative Mood is used in commanding, exhorting." 
How is this ? I should hardly exhort a man of any intelligence or 
sensibility in a commanding manner, lest he should be disgusted 
with me. " Though this mood derives its nature from its intima- 
tion of command, it is used on occasions of a very opposite 
nature." Truly, very opposite, even in the humblest supplica- 
tions of an inferior being to one who is infinitely his superior ; as, 
" Give us this day our daily bread," etc. Does an inferior being, 
here, in the humblest supplications, address the Giver of all good 
and perfect gifts, in a commanding manner ? " Most assuredly 
not." Then, why accuse an inferior, and so humble a being, of 
such presumption, effrontery, and profanity ? Murray, speaking of 
moods, remarks, "It is necessary to set proper bounds to this 
business, so as not to occasion obscurity and perplexity, when we 
mean to be simple and perspicuous." 

But has he set proper bounds ? Has he not occasioned obscurity 
and perplexity ? However, he may have meant to be simple and 
perspicuous. He further remarks, he has exhibited such moods 
only as are obviously distinct. Let us see. The teacher says to 
the pupil, M You may go home, if you choose." The teacher per- 
mits the pupil to retire ; but what propriety is there in saying 
that he does so in the Imperative mood — that is, in a com- 
manding manner. Is this what Mr. Murray would call being 
simple and perspicuous in the use of moods ? 

But, in other places, " may go " is in the Potential Mood — may 
being the sign of the Potential. Again, " may go " indicates or 
declares permission. The Indicative mood is used for indicating or 
declaring : " You may go, if you choose," here is the contingency 
of choice — " if you choose" The Subjunctive is used to express 
contingency. Now, in what mood is " may go ?" Is this setting 
proper bounds to moods ? Is this the way to avoid obscurity and 
perplexity ? Has he, indeed, exhibited such moods only as are 
obviously distinct ? 

How can the Imperative mood, that is, the commanding manner, 
be appropriately used for exhorting, entreating, or permitting ? 
Is the manner of exhorting, entreating, and permitting, the same, 
or similar to that of commanding ? Whether I command, exhort, 
entreat, or permit, is my manner truly the same ? 

Any one showing the consistency of this classification manifests 
ability to harmonize extremes — he can evidently make the worse 
appear the better cause. 

The Imperative mood expressions are nothing but elliptical 
forms of the second person, future — the helping verb, and some- 
times the subject, being omitted. 

The prevailing systems of grammar strangely restrict the Im- 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

perative mood to the present tense. " Lord, forgive us our sins," 
forgive is called imperative mood, present tense. " The present 
tense expresses what is now going on." Does forgive here ex- 
press what is now taking place, or does it not most obviously 
express what we desire to take place after our petitioning ? I 
venture to teach that what is to take place hereafter should be 
called future, not present ; therefore, I am constrained to differ with 
the systems just alluded to. 

" I am supported by the Hebrew, in making the imperative 
mood, future. The imperative, in the Hebrew, has always a future 
signification. The future tense and the imperative mood have the 
same ground form, out of the Kal. conjugation ; and they have 
the same ground form in Kal., except the verbs with future Pat- 
thach. " The imperative mood has only the second persons, when 
an imperative sense for the first and third persons is needed ; the 
Hebrews employed those persons respectively of the future tense.' 7 
— Stuakt's Gram., p. 83. — E. Smith, p. 89. 

" Thou shall not kill" " Thou shalt not steal." — Exodus, xx, 
13, 15. "Of the ten commandments, eight are negative, and all 
these are indicative in form." — Gr. Bkown's Gram, of Grammars, 
p. 326. Why not put all the commandments in the imperative 
mood, if mood means manner ? 

Note 45 — Infinitive Mood. 

" The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and un- 
limited manner, without any distinction of number or person." — 
Murray's Gram., p. 53. " Expresses a thing !" Do verbs express 
things, or is this the office of nouns ? "Ina general and unlimited 
manner." Are moods, or adverbs, employed to qualify the manner 
of expression ? 

" Strive to improve." 

" To improve is a regular verb neuter, and in the imperative 
mood. Kepeat the present tense," etc. — Murray, p. 149. " To 
improve — a verb neuter." " A verb Neuter expresses neither 
action nor passion," etc. Improve expresses no action ! Improve 
appears to me, to express action as distinctly, and as emphatically 
as any word in the language : Murray to the contrary notwith- 
standing. 

" Kepeat the present tense." Suppose we do: "The Present 
Tense represents an action or event as passing at the time in 
which it is mentioned." — Murray, p. 57. Will this definition 
apply to the expression, " to improve ?" Does "to improve" 
" represent an action or event as passing at the time in which it is 
mentioned?" If not, why call " to improve" a verb in the present 
tense, infinitive, or any other mood ? It is a little remarkable 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 167 

that our grammarians should restrict this mood to the present, 
though it rarely, if ever, expresses a present action ; and yet ex- 
clude all other tenses. May not past and future actions be spoken 
of in an unlimited manner, as well as the present ? 

Why call this mood infinitive ? Infinitive is derived from the 
two Latin words, in, not, and finis, end or termination ; so- 
called, then, I suppose, because it has no government — this is the 
signification of the term. But why give the following Kule xii ? 
" The infinitive mood may be governed by verbs, participles, ad- 
jectives, nouns, and pronouns." — E. 0. Smith, p. 84. It is to my 
mind not a little remarkable, that a verb which is in a form or 
manner, infinitive — unlimited — ungoverned, may yet be governed 
by verbs, participles, adjectives, nouns, and pronouns. 

Will some of the Murray menders, or their adherents, condescend 
to inform us how, or in what, verbs, participles, and adjectives 
govern the infinitive ; how they limit the unlimited ; in what they 
govern the ungovernable. They don't stop here, but go on to 
say : " Note vii. The infinitive is sometimes governed by con- 
junctions or adverbs." Conjunctions govern verbs ! How ? In 
what ? What conjunctions govern the infinitive mood ? I would 
be pleased to have a few instances, in which conjunctions govern 
the infinitive. " The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a 
general and unlimited manner," etc. Manner ! If the mood ex- 
press the manner, why employ the adverbs ? I am disposed to 
think an adverb would answer better to qualify the manner of an 
action. 

" Kule I. A verb must agree with its nominative case, in 
number and person." — Murray's Syntax, p. 97. But we are told, 
that verbs in the infinitive are without any distinction of number 
or person. How, then, can verbs agree with their nominatives in a 
distinction of which they are destitute ? " Verbs in the infinitive 
mood have no nominative case." What is the nominative ? " The 
agent, actor, or doer." So, then, verbs active in the infinitive, 
expressing or implying action, have no nominative, that is, no 
agent, actor, or doer — an action without an actor — an effect with- 
out a cause ! Strange philosophy ! 

The infinitive mood cannot include an active verb — active verbs 
express action ; verbs in the infinitive have no nominative, that is, 
no actor : therefore, where there is no actor, there can be no 
action ; and if there is no action expressed, the verb cannot appro- 
priately be called active — thus, all the so-called active verbs are 
excluded from this mood. 

Notwithstanding verbs in the infinitive mood, expressing 
action, have no nominative, or actor, yet, we learn, they may be 
governed by nouns and pronouns in the objective case. 

Novel lesson ! The action not governed by the actor, but by 



166 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



what is acted upon. But in what, or how ? If these words are 
destitute of number and person, and have no nominative case, in 
what respect are they verbs ? Neither do nouns have any distinction 
of person in form, and often undergo no change to distinguish the 
numbers — though nouns, as well as verbs, frequently express or 
imply action. "A verb in the infinitive mode, is the object of the 
preposition to, expressed or understood.'' — Clark's Gram., p. 
127. " The preposition to governs the infinitive mood, and com- 
monly connects it to a finite verb ;" as, " I desire to learn." — 
Gould Brown's Gram, of Grammars, p. 587. 
^ " The infinitive mood, in English, is distinguished by the prepo- 
sition to ; which, with a few exceptions, immediately precedes it, 
and may be said to govern it. But this little word has no more 
claim to be ranked as a part of the verb, than has the conjunction 
if, which is the sign of the subjunctive.'* " Besides, by most of 
our grammarians, the present tense of the infinitive mood is declared 
to be the radical form of the verb ; but this doctrine must be 
plainly untrue, upon the supposition that the tense is a compound !" 
— G. Brown, p. 322. ob. 1. The word to is neither a part of the 
verb, as Cobbett, R. C. Smith, S. Kirkham, and Wells, say it is ; 
nor a part of the infinitive mood, as Hart and many others have it 
to be, but a "distinct preposition." Now as to is not a verb, nor 
any part of a verb, but a preposition, and governs learn, Rule, 
" Prepositions govern the objective case," will Messrs. Clark and 
Brown have the kindness to show how a verb can be the object 
of a preposition ? How can prepositions govern verbs ? Do verbs 
have cases ? If so, how many and what are they ? Is learn, in the 
example just quoted, in the objective case ? 

"Obs. 1. The infinitive verb partakes much of a substantive 
character, generally expressing the name of an act. 

™ j 'We are prepared to act. 

examples, -j We are p repared for action.' "--Clark, p. 127. 

" Note 2. — The infinitive mode has, in its sense and use, a near 
affinity to a noun, and often has the construction of one." — Web- 
ster's Gram., p. 127. 

" To love is called the infinitive mode, because it expresses 
an action in a manner unlimited by number or person. It cannot, 
of course, have a nominative, nor can any noun have a nominative ; 
but any noun can itself be a nominative, and so can the infinitive 
mode." — Barnard's Gram., p. 212. 

It may be readily seen, that the class of words under consideration 
partakes the nature of a verb, in expressing or implying action with 
more or less reference to time, and of a noun, in being the name of 
an action, and the object of a relative (preposition) ; consequently 
these words may be appropriately and significantly termed verbal 
nouns. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 169 

" The infinitive mood is the noun form of the verb, as the parti- 
ciple is the adjective form. An affirmation cannot be made by 
means of either." — Butler's Gram., p. 55. 

" The verb, in the infinitive, as well as in the imperative mood, 
is divested of its affirmative or verbal force. In both these moods, 
it is always presented in its noun state. 111 — Kirkham's Gram., p. 48. 

Note 46 — The Indicative Mood. 

"The indicative mood simply indicates or declares a thing ; as. 
4 He loves, he is loved :' or it asks a question ; as, l Does he love V 
' Is he loved V In some places, we are told, the mood is a particular 
form of the verb; a change, variation, or modification of the verb : 
but here the " Indicative Mood simply (only) indicates or declares 
a thing." The names of things are nouns. Thus, verbs are con- 
founded with nouns. But what does mood mean ? It certainly 
does not mean all those things. Form and manner are not synony- 
mous ; they are by no means interchangeable terms. If so, mood 
must be somewhat Proteus-like, changing from form to manner, 
at pleasure. I apprehend, the manner of an action would be better 
qualified by the use of adverbs, etc. 

" There are five moods of verbs." — Murray, p. 53. If so, as 
mood means form, we may expect to find five forms corresponding 
to the five moods. Let us see : indicative, I love ; potential, I may 
love ; subjunctive, if I love ; imperative, love thou ; infinitive, to 
love. Here are five moods represented, but no difference in the 
form of the verb ; yet we are told that mood is a particular form 
of the verb. I see no particularity in form here ; the verb love un- 
dergoes no change whatever. Again, we are told mood means 
manner; if so, is the difference in the manner here denoted by the 
verb, or by some combination, or change of position ? Is mood 
also intended to include combination and position ? Mood must be 
a most comprehensive term — a complete vortex of grammatic diffi- 
culties ! 

If verbs have five moods, and it is essential to observe them, 
it is evidently important, that we should be able to distinguish 
them ; but, as we have just seen, they are not distinguished by any 
change of form — any number of grammars to the contrary. 

How can we distinguish the indicative from other moods, seeing 
there is no difference in form ? 

Kirkham says, " The mood or mode of a verb means the man- 
ner" etc. So, then, we have indicative mood, or manner. Indi- 
cative, from the Latin indico, means to declare, hence indicative 
mood is equivalent to declarative manner. When I say, "He 
comes," my manner is affirmative or declarative, " He came not," 
my manner is negative ; " Did he come ?" my manner is interro- 
gative. Here are three different manners, but one mood. What 

- 8 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

can be more different in manner than the three expressions just 
quoted ? Yet they are all crowded into the same mood. If manner is 
the basis of the classification of moods, with what propriety can 
dissimilar manners be associated together ? 

What can be more dissimilar in manner of expression, than for 
one man to say an action has been performed ; a second to say it 
has not been performed ; and a third to inquire whether it has 
been performed or not? What can be more dissimilar thaa 
affirmative, negative, and interrogative manners ? Yet we find 
them classed together, notwithstanding manner is made the specific 
difference — this is at variance with the first principle of classifica- 
tion — an outrage on science itself. " It asks a question." When 
a question is asked, is the manner declarative ? " No." Then why 
say so ? 

"He learns' 1 may be indicative as it declares a fact ; but "Does 
he learn ?" is not declarative — quite the opposite — it is interroga- 
tive. In the last expression, I by no means declare a fact. Then 
why call it indicative, which signifies to declare ? This expression 
may more properly be called the interrogative mood. 

"May I go home?" 1st. "May go" is indicative, because a 
question is asked ; 2d. "May go" is potential, may being the sign 
of this mood ; 3d. This expression is used to entreat, and the im- 
perative is used for commanding, entreating, etc., therefore, may 
go must be in the imperative mood. Hence may go may be any 
mood, or no mood, just as you please — " mood is a particular form 
or manner" — this application of moods don't seem very particular 
— anything but particular. 

Note 47 — Potential Mood. 

" The Potential mood implies possibility or liberty, power, will, 
or obligation." — Murray, p. 53. 

As the term potential is from the Latin potens, meaning power- 
ful ; so, I apprehend, any verb implying power in the manner of ex- 
pression, should be, accordingly, included in the potential mood. 
" I canride. v This verb is called potential, because the manner 
implies power to do the act of riding. The verb can is from the 
Saxon word, cannan, to know, to be able, to have sufficient moral 
or physical capacity. " I can ride ; I ride : I have power to ride ; 
I am able to ride." These expressions equally imply power. Then, 
if the fact of power being implied constitutes the potential mood or 
manner, why not parse these, and all other expressions implying 
power, in the potential mood ? Why teach that I can ride is po- 
tential, because power is implied, and yet reject " I have power to 
ride," the latter not only implying power, but most boldly express- 
ing it? 

Then why make have in the Indicative, and to ride in the Infini- 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 171 

tive, seeing that they set forth the idea of power as forcibly as the 
expression, J can ride ? It is a little curious that where the same 
facts exist, the same conclusions should not follow. 

We are told I can ride is potential, because this expression im- 
plies power ; but does not the indicative, / ride, imply power, also ? 
Indeed, is not the power to perform an act more clearly established, 
when I am absolutely engaged in performing the act spoken of, than 
when I merely say I can perform the act ; as, "I can ride V* 

" Possibly, he did write ;" " I desire you to think for yourself ;" 
" He does as he pleases ;" " He obligates himself to teach." Strange 
as it may seem, though the sentences just quoted so clearly, and so 
forcibly imply possibility, will, liberty, and obligation, yet they are 
not admitted into the potential mood, notwithstanding this mood is 
said to imply the qualities just enumerated. But if these, or any 
other sentences, should imply possibility, liberty, will, or obligation, 
why should they be placed in the potential mood, seeing that po- 
tential means powerful ? If J can ride is potential, because power 
is implied ; I may ride is not potential, power not being implied : 
for, if the implying of power is a sufficient reason that any verb 
should be placed in the potential, the want of such implication of 
power is, to my mind, a most ample reason why such verbs should 
not be called potential. " Doctor, can the patient recover ?" The 
doctor answers, " He may recover ; but it is not probable." There 
is nothing in the expression "may recover" implying power ; then, 
why call it potential ? What could possibly be more contingent ? 
But the subjunctive is used to express contingency, etc. 

" Kobert, you must help John." What is the manner of this 
expression ? Is it not imperative ? Is it not a most direct com- 
mand ? Why, then, is it not in the imperative mood ? The idea 
of power being more strongly implied than the idea of command. 
It is certain that Robert is commanded, but it is not so evident 
that he has the power to comply. It is not a little strange that 
the mere possibility, liberty, will, or obligation should imply or 
constitute the power to perform the action ! Striking simplicity ! 
Again, this extension, as has just been shown, confounds the po- 
tential with all the other moods. Truth never contradicts nor con- 
founds itself. 

We are told, " The potential mood has for its signs the auxilia- 
ries may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. So, you 
perceive, though the sense requires the verb to be placed in all the 
moods severally, the potential excepted, yet the sign determines 
the verb to be potential. Shall we be influenced by the intrinsic 
meaning of words, or by arbitrary signs ? 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Note 48 — Subjunctive Mood. 



" The Subjunctive mood represents a thing under a condition, 
motive, wish, supposition, etc., and is preceded by a conjunction, 
expressed or understood, and attended by another verb." — Murray, 
p. 53. 

" The Subjunctive mood represents a thing /" Who ever heard 
of a verb, or any form of a verb whatever, representing a thing ! 
Do verbs represent things, Mr. Murray ? You have told us, that 
" A noun is the name of any thing that exists, or of which we have 
any notion." Are things represented by names (nouns), or should 
they be represented by a particular form of the verb, the subjunc- 
tive mood, for instance ? " The Subjunctive mood represents a 
thing." Then a thing may be a verb ! But how is it, some words 
representing things are nouns, while other words representing 
things should be called verbs in the subjunctive mood ? Do verbs 
ever represent things ? We are compelled to deny the fact that a 
verb, under any imaginable form, represents a thing. But suppose 
the subjunctive mood could represent a thing, how would a thing 
look, under a condition, motive, wish, or supposition ? A most 
beautiful picture ! Curious indeed ! It would be a most beautiful 
scene painted. 

We are further instructed by this definition, that the verb, in the 
subjunctive mood, " is preceded by a conjunction expressed or 
understood." Wonderful observation ! May not the other moods 
be preceded by conjunctions ? "I may go and see my mother," 
here the verb see is preceded by the conjunction and, and also im- 
plies future time, and contingency. Is see in the Subjunctive mood, 
present tense ? 

" And attended by another verb." Well, this is an astounding 
fact, " attended by another verb !" Who ever heard of the like? 
Are none of the other moods ever attended by other verbs ? 

See is likewise subjoined, and as subjunctive (from the Latin 
subjunctivus, French subjunctif) means subjoined, or added to 
something before said or written, why not parse see in the sub- 
junctive mood ? See evidently corresponds in every particular to 
the requirements of the subjunctive. Why is this mood called 
subjunctive, if it is not to signify that the verb is subjoined ? We 
frequently find the verbs included in the subjunctive mood, not 
subjoined, but preceding other verbs, as in the following examples : 
" If he were good, he would be happy ;" " Though he rides out 
daily, his health is no better ;" " If he ride out every day, his health 
will probably improve ;" " Though he is poor, yet he is respected ;" 
"If he be studious, he will excel." It is worthy of observation, 
that the verbs in the so-called subjunctive mood are as often found 
in the preceding, as in the subsequent or subjoined member of the 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 173 

sentence ; hence the term subjunctive is insignificant and inappro- 
priate. This conclusion, however, may be objected to, and it may 
be said that these sentences can be transposed. It is true, these 
sentences can be transposed, and yet make sense, so as to throw 
these verbs into the subjoined or subjunctive member of the sen- 
tence ; but is it not equally true that you may invert almost any 
sentence, preserve the sense, and yet throw verbs belonging to any 
of the moods into the subjunctive sentences ? Verbs in the infini- 
tive mood are generally subjoined. No wonder that G-. Brown 
should acknowledge, that "On this point, the instructions published 
by Lindley Murray are exceedingly vague and inconsistent." 

" If he ride out every day, his health will probably improve. " 
Which is the more contingent and doubtful, his riding out, or the 
improvement of his health ? " Certainly the latter." Why, then, 
place the former in a mood which is said to express doubt, contin- 
gency, etc., and the latter in a mood expressive of the greatest 
degree of certainty ? " Will improve' 1 is parsed in the indicative, 
a mood which " indicates or declares a thing." But his improve- 
ment is quite uncertain, depending on the contingency of his riding 
out. If the phrase, **■ If he ride out every day," expresses contin- 
gency, much greater contingency must be expressed by the latter 
part, " his health will probably improve." There is evidently more 
contingency in the improvement of his health than in his riding ; 
for his health depends upon the contingency of his riding : we have 
no assurance of his health, though he should ride — therefore, the 
latter is doubly contingent ; and why is it not subjunctive, since 
it is not only expressive of contingency, but is subjoined, also ? 
But, if you will not call it Subjunctive, why call it Indicative ? 
The words, " his health will probably improve," not only express 
a double contingency, but an action, simply, as probable or possible. 
The potential mood, however, implies possibility, etc. Then, why 
not call it potential mood ? We are answered, that " will im- 
prove" is in the future tense, and the potential mood has no future 
tense. The potential mood implies the possibility of an action, 
yet the potential has no future ! 

Can no action be spoken of as possible, except present or past — 
absolutely going on, or completed ? Can no future action be spo- 
ken of as possible ? If not, our language is certainly very deficient. 
"If he ride out every day," is said not only to be in the Subjunc- 
tive mood, but in the present tense . Why call ride, in this sen- 
tence, present tense? Does it express an action now going on, or 
does it clearly imply future time ? " If he ride," means the same 
as " If he will ride," it, therefore, plainly implies future time. 

Kirkham, speaking of this tense, says, " This tense of the Sub- 
junctive mood ought to be the elliptical future.' 1 

Mr. Kirkham, if the verb ought to be the " elliptical future," 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

where is the propriety in teaching pupils to parse it in the present 
tense ? Shall we parse words according to reason, common sense, 
their uses, or shall the language be disposed of according to the 
Murray school ? 

As we have just seen, the moods are not distinguishable by any 
expression of doubt or uncertainty ; for, in the instance in which 
the greatest contingency is expressed, the verb is in the indicative. 
" A little reflection will show that the contingent sense lies in the 
meaning and force of the conjunction, expressed or understood." — 
Murray, p. 74. 

Then, if the contingency lies in the conjunction, and not in the 
verb, why ascribe to the latter a property exclusively belonging to 
the former? 

We are sometimes informed, that the different moods may be dis- 
tinguished by a change of form ; and we are further instructed that 
the Subjunctive has two forms — the common form, in which verbs 
are varied, like those of the indicative and potential ; and the sub- 
junctive form, which is peculiar to the subjunctive, and in which 
the verb is not varied by number or person. How can a verb of 
the common form be distinguished from verbs of the indicative and 
potential moods ? " Mood is a particular form of the verb." But 
how can a form, common to three different moods, be particular ? 
G-. Brown says, " Moods are different forms of the verb." The 
terms particular and different authorize us to expect verbs to be 
furnished with various, separate, and distinct forms, peculiar to the 
subjunctive. What particular or different form of the verb has 
the subjunctive mood ? 

Let us see an example found in R. C. Smith's Grammar, p. 63 : 
" If he is poor, he is respected." You observe, the first is, is parsed 
in the subjunctive ; but the second is, in the indicative mood. Yet 
there is no difference in their form. Now, if mood means form, 
how can the verb have more moods than it has forms ? How shall 
the subjunctive common form be distinguished from the indicative 
and potential, seeing that they are the same in form ? " The Sub- 
junctive mood is used for expressing doubt or uncertainty.' ! Let 
us see. Does the first is express any more doubt or uncertainty 
than the second is? It does not ; therefore, these two words can- 
not be distinguished by reference to doubt, any more than by dif- 
ference in form. We may say, in the language of an eminent 
scholar : 

" Strange such a difference there should be, 
'Twixt tweedle-dum and tweedle-dee." 

" The Subjunctive common form is used for expressing doubt or 
uncertainty, without reference to future time." 

Take the following example : " I may give to the poor if I have 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 175 

sufficient for myself." May is one of the signs of the present Po- 
tential, but " may give' 1 obviously refers to the future, expresses un- 
certainty or contingency, as well as possibility. Here, you perceive, 
this verb may be parsed in either or both moods. The verb under- 
goes no change. If it denotes contingency, it is subjunctive ; but, 
if it implies possibility, it should be potential. It, however, does 
both. To which does it belong ? Perhaps a compromise would do, 
and call it subjunctive potential mood ! Murray, speaking of moods, 
says, " We have exhibited such only as are obviously distinct." 
Are these moods obviously distinct ? Take the other verb in this 
example, " If I have" etc., have is parsed in the subjunctive, 
yet have has the same form here that it has in the indicative, and 
does not express any doubt or uncertainty ; for the conjunctive if 
expresses the doubt or uncertainty ; but the conjunctive is neither 
part nor parcel of the verb. You may further observe, that when- 
ever the indicative is pressed into the service of the subjunctive, 
the doubt or contingency is expressed by the conjunctive, and not 
by the verb ; and, furthermore, the potential expresses as much 
doubt or uncertainty as the subjunctive possibly can express. 

Smith says, " When any verb in the Subjunctive mood, present 
tense, has a reference to future time, we should use the Subjunc- 
tive Form." Just think of a verb being parsed in the present, 
imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect tense, simply because there is some 
doubt whether the act expressed by the verb ever will take place 
or not. Call the tense present, that is to say, the act is taking- 
place, because it may never take place ! Call the tense imperfect, 
"perfect, or pluperfect, which tenses signify that the act has taken 
place, because you have some doubt whether it ever will take place 
or not ! This is reasoning, with a vengeance 1 Logic worthy of 
the best days of fogyism. 

James Brown says, " In theory, the Subjunctive mood has never 
been separated from other moods — in practice, this mood is the 
work of chance. In theory, it is not found in the genius of our 
language ; and, in practice, it has too much of the pedant to bear 
any analogy to the unostentatious appearance of the good old An- 
glo-Saxon style, which pervades and distinguishes the English 
Phrenod." 

" No man has yet attempted to use a Subjunctive mood in the 
English language without contradicting both himself and the ex- 
pounders, in applying its absurd rules. This will appear from a 
few quotations from the best writers : ' If a book does not appear 
worthy of a complete perusal ; if there be a probability that the 
writer will afford but one prize to divers blanks/ etc. — Dr. Watts. 
The verb be is here in the indicative mood, or the sentence is bad 
English ; the verbs does and be are certainly in the same mood. 

" 'A tame serpent was taken by the French when they invested 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Madras, in the late war, and was carried to Pondieherry in a close 
carriage. But from thence he found his way back again to his old 
quarters, which, it seemed, he liked better, though Madras be dis- 
tant from Pondieherry above one hundred miles.' — Lord Mon- 
boddo. The verb be is here in the Indicative mood ; for it de- 
clares a well-ascertained fact, that the distance from Pondieherry 
to Madras is more than one hundred miles. 

a ' Taste is certainly not an arbitrary principle, which is subject 
to the fancy of every individual, and which admits no criterion for 
determining whether it be true or not.' — Blair's Rhetoric. In 
this sentence, this master of rhetoric used the verb be in the indica- 
tive mood ; for not one of the rules given for the subjunctive mood 
applies to the verb be in this sentence. Neither doubt nor futurity 
is here expressed.' " 

So we see that Murray, and those who adopt Bishop Lowth's 
subjunctive mood, run into contradiction and inconsistency. 

Note 49 — Passive Yoice. 

" Voice, in grammar, a particular mode of inflecting or conjugating 
verbs; as, the active voice; the passive voice" — Webster's Die. 
Unabridged. Mode, "The primary sense of mode is measure, 
hence form." — Ibid. The Latin language has two distinctive forms 
of inflection, hence a basis for two forms of conjugation, called the 
active voice ; as, Amo, I love ; passive voice, Amor, I am loved. 
The Greek has three forms and three voices ; viz., tvtvtco, active ; 
rvTtrcofiai, passive ; and rvTtocoficu, middle. " The Hebrew verb has 
seven forms, and may be said to have seven voices ; but the He- 
brews call them conjugations, kautal, niktal, kittele, ku-tal, hik-et-le, 
hauket-al, hith-kaut-tale." 

How many voices have verbs in the English language ? Just as 
many voices as they have corresponding forms, of course, to be con- 
sistent with the definition, and the application of the same in all 
languages, ancient and modern. Our grammarians usually tell us 
of two voices, active and passive ; of the propriety of this, however, 
I have some serious doubts ; consequently, let us examine some 
samples of the so-called passive voice : "Your saddle is finished." 
They call " is finished" a verb in the passive voice, indicative mood, 
present tense. " Is finished" a verb ! "A verb is a word," etc. — 
Murray. " Is finished" here seems to be two words. Present tense/ 
Suppose a saddler had finished a saddle for you on Saturday ; and you 
should step into his shop Monday following, and he should say to you, 
" your saddle is finished." Murray teaches us that " is finished" is a 
verb in the present tense, which tense, he further informs us, " rep- 
resents an action or event as passing at the time in which it is 
mentioned." Does the expression, " is finished," represent the sad- 
dler as finishing your saddle at the time in which you are talking 



PASSIVE VOICE. 177 

with hira ? It is so represented by our grammarians. But the sad- 
dler says, he was not working on it at that time ; but that he had 
finished the saddle on the previous Saturday, and he has positively 
not touched it since. Which is correct, Murray or the saddler ? 
According to the teaching of the passive voice, we are made to say, 
that what is past, and may have past long since, is, nevertheless, 
present — yet going on. 

Let us examine the syntax of the expression, " Your saddle is 
finished." "Is finished 1 ' is a verb ! " Eule 1. A verb agrees with 
its nominative case, in number and person." — Murray's Syntax, 
p. 97. What word is nominative to "is finished" ? " Saddle: 7 What 
is nominative case ? " The nominative case is the agent, actor, or 
doer." What does saddle do ? Is saddle the agent, actor, or doer ? 
Did the saddle finish the job ? This reminds me of a dialogue 
between a teacher and pupil. "John struck William. T. In 
what case is John ? P. John is nominative case to struck, because 
John is the actor or doer. T. In what case is William ? P. William 
is in the objective case, because he is acted upon. Now, give this 
sentence the passive-voice form. " William was stricken by John." 
T. In what case is William ? P. William is nominative to the verb 
1 was struck 1 , because he (William) was the agent, actor, or doer. 
T. But what did William do ? P. Eh ! eh ! eh ! (here the boy 
scratches his head) I don't know, unless he hollowed ! Enough to 
make a boy hollow. 

You may here observe that all that has been said of the nomi- 
native and objective cases in the active voice is directly contra- 
dicted in the 'passive voice : two contradictory statements cannot 
both be true, therefore one or both of these voices must be incon- 
sistent with the idiom of the English language. Bullions says, p. 
67 : "In the active voice, the subject of the verb acts — in the 
passive, it is acted upon." Let us see. " Mary was seen by John." 
Was Mary acted upon ? Mary is the subject to the passive verb, 
"was seen. 11 u The thunder was heard by me." Was the thunder 
acted upon ? "An injury was received by him." Did any action 
pass from him to the injury ? Why call one of these expressions 
active, the other passive ? One expresses as much action as the 
other. William is as passive in the one instance as the other, as 
much a sufferer when you say, " William was stricken by John," 
as if you say, "John struck William." 

This division of verbs into active and passive must be erroneous, 
or, at least, very defective ; for every division should exhaust the 
subject : but this division applies only to active or transitive verbs, 
while the active-intransitive (active neuter), or neuter verbs, are 
excluded from the active voice implicitly ; from the passive voice 
expressly : "All passive verbs are formed by adding the perfect 
participle of any active-transitive verb to the neuter verb to be." — 
8* 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

E. C. Smith, p. 69. No room here for active-intransitive verbs. 
No neuter verb except the verb to be. What shall be done with 
these active-intransitive, or neuter verbs ? If they are placed with 
the active, or active-transitive verb, under the name, active voice, 
there will be a misapplication of the term active ; for how can that 
consistently be called active, which is equally applicable to, and 
inclusive of, the neuter ? 

"7s stricken" a verb ! How do you make that ? "Is is a variation 
of the neuter verb am; stricken is the perfect, or past, participle of 
the verb strike ; is, taken with the perfect participle, makes the 
present passive." Magical operation ! 

The neuter verb is makes the perfect or past, present ; helps the 
participle until it becomes a verb — this is a good deal of help for 
a neuter verb to render. Then, is stricken a verb, or any part of a 
verb ? If it is not a verb, pray don't call it a verb. If it is a parti- 
ciple, so call it. 

" Note 6. — We should use participles, only, after have, and had, 
and the verb to 5e."~ E. 0. Smith's Gram., p. 82. According 
to this rule — which is acknowledged to be a correct principle by 
all systems, and indispensable — a participle, but not a verb, may 
be used after the variations of have and am ; consequently stricken, 
and all words similarly used, are participles, not verbs nor parts 
of verbs. 

li Is stricken 11 is not a form of the verb ; but a combination of the 
verb with a participle. I can't conceive how a combination of 
two different parts of speech, as a verb and participle, can be 
regarded as a form of either. Combination and form are very dif- 
ferent in signification, and should be very different in their appli- 
cation, if we use words according to their intrinsic meaning. 

The Spanish language, like the English, has the combinations of 
the perfect or past participle with the variations of the verb am, 
(ser and estar), this is likewise the case in the German. " Ich 
werde geliebt — I am loved." Yet neither of those languages finds 
it necessary to distinguish these combinations as passive verbs or 
voices ; neither is it necessary to make this distinction in English, 
except to waste time and money, and to increase the labor and 
embarrassment of the pupil. 

If the combination of a perfect participle of an active-transitive 
verb with the variations of the verb am must be considered a 
form of the verb — denominated passive voice — what must we call 
the combinations of the imperfect participle of neuter, active-tran- 
sitive, and active-intransitive verbs, as well as the perfect participle 
of both neuter and active-intransitive verbs, for these combinations 
are equally frequent, and of as much importance ; as, " I am sitting ;" 
" I am eating ;" " I am walking ;" " I am grown ;" " My watch is 
run down." 



COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 179 

Why so strenuously insist upon giving a name to one combination, 
and refuse names to other combinations so distinct, and equally im- 
portant ? 

COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 

Q. Which are the compound pronouns ? 

291. A. The Compound pronouns are myself, thy- 
self, yourself, himself herself itself mine, thine, hers, 
ours, yours, theirs, others, none, what, whatever, whatso- 
ever, whoever, whoso, ivhosoever, whichever, and whichso- 
ever. 

Q. Why are these words called compound pronouns ? 

292. A. The first six are called compound, be- 
cause each is compounded of two words ; as, myself 
of my and self, etc. 

293. Rem. — The class may here be required to give the compo- 
sition of the first six words in this list, also, their plurals. 

Q. Why is mine a compound pronoun ? 

294. A. Mine is a compound pronoun, because it 
may stand for one thing, or several things, pertain- 
ing to the person speaking or writing, thus having 
reference to a person, and a thing or things at the 
same time. 

Q. Why are thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, others, and none, as well as 
mine, compound pronouns ? 

295. A. Thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, others, and 
none, as well as mine, are called compound pronouns, 
because they are compounded in meaning — standing 
for nouns, and, at the same time, referring to the 
person or persons to whom the thing or things may 
pertain. 

296. Rem. — Speaking of two parcels of books, I say, " Mine 
are better than thine," mine stands for the books belonging to the 
person speaking, and not for the first person, singular number ; for, 
if so, are should be am, to agree in number and person with the 
pronoun mine : thus, " Mine am better than thine." This is 
nonsense ! We certainly ought to be able to distinguish between 
person and property. Thine in this example does not represent 



ISO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the second person, singular, but the books belonging to the in- 
dividual addressed. Hers, ours, yours, and theirs may be ex- 
plained in the same manner. 

297. Rem. — Others stands for other persons, other things, etc. 

298. Rem. — None is compounded of no and one, but is used in 
the plural, as well as the singular number. 

299. Rem. — Do not use hisself for himself; their selves, them- 
selves ; ourn, ours ; yourn, yours ; hisen, his ; hern, hers ; theirn, 
theirs. 

PARSING. 

Model 51. 

John, speaking of two pair of match horses, says, 
" Mine are better than yours." (1) Mine is a com- 
pound pronoun, (2) masculine gender, (3) plural 
number, (4) third person, (5) subject to are, (7) 
stands for the horses belonging to the person speak- 
ing, (8) E. 16. 

(1) Yours, is a compound pronoun, (2) masculine 
gender, (3) plural number, (4) third person, (5) ob- 
ject of the relative, than, (6) K. 15, Relatives govern 
objects, (7) stands for the horses belonging to the 
person or persons addressed, (8) E. 16. 

" I obey the law and all others should do the 
same." (1) Others is a compound pronoun, (3) 
plural number, (4) third person, (5) subject to 
should do, (7) stands for the other persons, (8) 
E. 16. 

" None is so deaf that he will not hear." 
(1) None is a compound pronoun, (2) masculine 
gender [here], (3) singular number, (4) third person, 
(5) subject to is, (7) stands for wo and one, (8) E. 16. 

Select and parse the compound pronouns in 
Exercise 118. 

1. Thomas, speaking of a book, says, " Mine is better than 
yours." 2. Julia, speaking of a bonnet, says, " Hers is better 



WHAT, ETC. 181 

than mine." 3. Jane injured her book and soiled mine. 4. Hers 
is better than theirs. 5. Ours is better than yours. 6. Others 
may do as they please. 7. She injured hers, but preserved thine. 
8. Thine is the kingdom. 9. Theirs is perfect. 



WHAT, ETC 

300. Obs. What is compounded of which and that. 
These words have been contracted and made to 
coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being 
still retained ; which that; wh[ich, th]at, — what. 

301. Rem — Anciently, wliat appeared in the varying forms 
tha qua, qua tha, qu tha, qu that, quhat, hwat, and finally what. 

302. Obs. What may also be called a compound 
pronoun, because it has a two-fold relation. Both 
relations may be subjects ; both may be objects : or 
one may be subject ; the other, object. 

303. Rem. — " What is good, should be lawful," what is first 
subject to is ; secondly, subject to should be. 

304. Rem. — " You heard what I said," what is first object of 
heard ; secondly, object of said. 

305. Rem. — " Wliat I said, pleased him," what is first object 
of said ; secondly, subject to pleased. 4 

306. Rem. — What is usually of the singular number, though 
sometimes plural ; as, " I must turn to the faults, or what appear 
such to me." — Byron. What, here, stands for the faults which, 
and consequently must be plural. 

307. Obs. Who, which, and what, with so, ever, or 
soever postfixed, have an unlimited signification, and 
form the compound pronouns tvhoso, whoever, whoso- 
ever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever, 
which are parsed like the compound pronoun what. 

308. Obs. What, whatever, whatsoever, whichever, 
and whicJisoever often have a two-fold office ; and, as 
such, they may be employed both as pronouns and 
definitives at the same time. 

309. Rem. — u What money he had was taken away," what is 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

first used as a definitive to point out money ; secondly, what is 
used as a pronoun, standing for money, and subject to was. 

310. Obs. What, whatever, whatsoever, which, which- 
ever, and whichsoever are frequently used simply as 
definitives. 

311. Rem. — "To whichever party you belong, let your aim 
be for your country's good," whichever is here used simply as a 
definitive. 

312. Obs. Some of the words usually called com- 
pound pronouns are sometimes simply used as pro- 
nouns in a general sense. 

313. Rem. — * Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his 
blood be shed," whoso is a pronoun used indefinitely. 

314. Rem. — The antiquated words, whoso and whatso, found 
often in the Bible, and frequently in the poets, Cowper, Whittier, 
and others, are equivalent in import to whosever and whatsoever. 

PARSING. 

Model 52. 

"What is written remains." (1) What is a com- 
pound pronoun, (3) singular number, (4) third per- 
(5) subject to is, (7) has a two-fold relation, and is 
also subject to remains, (9) stands for that which, 
or the thing which, (10) R. 16. 

" I know what they did to prevent its accom- 
plishment." (1) What is a compound pronoun, (3) 
singular number, (4) third person, (5) object of 
know, (6) R. 14. — " Verbs govern objects," (7) has a 
two-fold relation, and is also object of did, (8) R. 14. — 
" Verbs govern objects," (9) stands for that which, or 
the thing which, (10) R. 16. — " Pronouns agree," etc. 

" They advocate what is proper." (1) What is a 
compound pronoun, (3) singular number, (4) third 
person, (5) object of advocate, (6) R. 14. — " Verbs 
govern objects," (7) has a two-fold relation, and is also 
subject to is, (9) stands for that which, or the thing 
which, (10) R. 16. — " Pronouns agree," etc. 



PARSING OF WHAT, ETC. 183 

" Whosoever expects to find unmixed happiness 
on earth, looks for what he will not find." (1) Who- 
soever is a compound pronoun, (2) masculine gender, 
(3) singular number, (4) third person, (5) subject to 
expects, (7) has a two-fold relation, and is also sub- 
ject to looks, (9) stands for the man that, or who that, 
(10) R. 16. — " Pronouns agree," etc. 

" What man but enters, dies." (1) What, in this 
sentence, is a compound pronoun, (2) has a two-fold 
office, standing for a definitive, and pointing out man, 
(3) R. 4, (4) as a pronoun, what is masculine gender, 
(5) singular number, (6) third person, (7) subject to 
dies, (8) stands for man, (9) R. 16. 

According to the previous models, select and parse the 
compound pronouns, also, other words, at discretion, in 

Exercise 119. 

1. William demands what I cannot give. 2. What is improving 
should be pleasing. 3. Alonzo will do what is proper. 4. Who- 
ever takes that oath, is bound to enforce the laws. 5. Whatever 
delights, improves him. 6. Whosoever, therefore, will be a friend 
of the world, is the enemy of God. 7. Whatsoever he doeth, shall 
prosper. — Psalm, i, 3. 8. He bids whoever is athirst, to come. 
— Jenks' Devotions, p. 151. 9. Whoso diggeth a pit, shall fall 
therein. — Prov., xxvi, 27. 10. Whichever of you is found in the 
wrong, shall receive punishment. 11. Whoso tastes, can be en- 
slaved no more. — Cowper. 12. What is just, is honest ; and again, 
what is honest, is just. — Cicero. 13. What has been said. — 
Blair's Serm. 14. I will exert my endeavors, at whatever hazard, 
to repel the aggressor, and to drag the thief to justice ; whoever 
may protect them in their villainy, and whoever may partake of 
their plunder. — Barnard's Gram., p. 151. 15. What you recol- 
lect with most pleasure are the virtuous actions of your past life. 
16. What man is that ? 17. What the heart or the imagination 
dictates, always flows rapidly. — Frost's Exercises, p. 77. 18. 
Whatsoever things were written aforetime, were written for our 
learning. — Eomans, xv, 4. 19. There is something so overruling 
in whatever inspires us with awe. — Burke, On the Sublime, 304. 
20. Your spirits are always light ; mine are variable. 21. Their 
resources are numerous ; ours are few. 22. We must assist our- 
selves, let others do as they please. 23. Mine is better than yours. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

24. Yours is not so good as hers. 25. Ours is badly finished. 26. 
He is a friend of mine. 27. None are so blind as those who will 
not see. 28. Not that anything occurs, in consequence of our late 
loss, more afflictive than (what) was to be expected. — Life of 
Cowper, Let. 62. 

Promiscuous examples, involving the four preceding 
rules. 

Exercise 120. 

1. To play are pleasant. 2. To be of a poor and humble mind, 
to exercise benevolence towards others, to cultivate piety towards 
God, is the sure means of becoming peaceful and happy. 3. Which 
are the greater sin, to steal or to lie ? 4. "We have heard important 
news last week. 5. For us to lie are base. 6. To fear the world's 
censure, to be ashamed of the practice of precepts which the heart 
approves and embraces, marks a feeble and imperfect character. 
7. To assist, or to contribute to the poor, are equally charitable. 8. 
I have read twenty books last year. 

MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS ON RELATIVES. 

It might be well for the class to parse the words found 
in the following remarks : 

315. Rem. — Relatives often become descriptives ; as, " After 
ages." 

316. Rem.— Relatives often become adverbs ; as, " He went 
before. 11 

317. Rem. — Relatives often become conjunctives ; as, " Person- 
al bravery is not enough to constitute the general, without he ani- 
mates the whole army with courage." — Fielding's Socrates, p. 

^188. 

318. Rem. — Relatives may govern two objects referring to the 
same person or thing ; as, " These words were spoken to us men." 

319. Rem. — Relatives frequently govern objects understood ; as, 
" Not that anything occurs, in consequence of our late loss, more 
afflictive than (what) was to be expected." — Life of Cowper, Let. 
62. 

320. Rem. — Relatives are frequently understood ; as, " We are 
going (to our) home ;" " That is due (to) him." 

321. Rem. — Relatives are sometimes compounded with their 
objects ; as, " Instead of me," etc., i. e., in the place of me. " Simon 
Peter said, ' I go ajishing.' " 



MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS ON RELATIVES. 185 

322. Rem. — Relatives are often parsed as parts of verbs or 
participles, both being equivalent to one word ; as, " He was laugh- 
ed at ;" " What is he aiming at ;" " Yirgil was looked on as a 
majestic writer." 

323. Rem. — Relatives are often incorporated with nouns, descrip- 
tives, verbs, participles, adverbs, and other relatives ; as, uphold, 
forgiving, understanding, to overlook, afternoon, asleep. 

324. Rem. — Inseparable relatives are found only in connection 
with other words, serving to modify their meaning ; as, abide, be- 
come, conjoin, mistake, prefix, return, subjoin, etc. — See N. Web- 
ster's Gram., p. 81. 

325. Rem. — Relatives, with their objects, are either equivalent 
to adverbs or descriptives ; as, " The Nile rose with rapidity ;*' 
i. e., rapidly. " He is a man of honor ;" i. e., he is an honorable 
man. 

326. Rem. — Relatives have a two-fold office — connecting and 
showing relations ; they are generally placed before nouns and pro- 
nouns, which they govern, and show their relation to some preced- 
ing word, phrase, or sentence. 

327. Rem. — Though a noun or pronoun is generally the subse- 
quent term of the relation, yet an idea conveyed by a whole phrase 
or sentence may be the subsequent term ; as, " He is about to go.'' 

328. Rem. — Two relatives are sometimes employed to express a 
two-fold relation ; as, " The dog came from under the house." Such 
relatives may be called double relatives, or the first a helping, the 
second a principal, relative. 

329. Rem. — The antecedent term of relation is frequently omit- 
ted, or left indefinite ; as, 

i( O ! for the voice and fire of a seraphim, 
To sing thy glories with devotion due." — Beattie. 

330. Rem. — Frequently, the terms of relation are inverted ; as, 
" Over against this church stands a large hospital." — Addison. 

331. Rem. — Relatives are sometimes abbreviated ; as, " Nine 
o'clock ;" i.e., Nine of the clock. 

332. Obs. Sometimes both the relative and the 
definitive should be used. " These poems are as 
good as some of Dana." Say, Some of Dana's. " Tell 
me one of Dr. Franklin's anecdotes." That is, re- 
late an anecdote that Dr. Franklin was wont to tell ; 
but, if you wish a story respecting Dr. Franklin, you 
should say, " Tell me an anecdote of Dr. Franklin." 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

333. Obs. Avoid unnecessary relatives. Ci By- 
watching of him, you may detect the trick." As 
the participial noun watching is sufficient to govern 
him, the relative of is unnecessary. 

334. Rem, — The unnecessary use of relatives may sometimes be 
avoided by making definitives ; as, u The house of the Governor is 
very commodious." Say, The Governor's house, etc. 

335. Obs. The relative to is generally omitted after 
the verbs bid, dare, make, help, let, need, hear, see, feel, 
etc. See Webster's Gram., E. 32. 

" He bids me to come." Say, He bids me come ; 
leaving out to before come. 

336. Rem. — The relative to is often omitted after participles, 
participial and verbal nouns, derived from the verbs hid, dare, 
make, help, let, need, hear, see, feel, etc. 

337. Obs. Relatives understood often govern ob- 
jects after verbs, participles, verbal and participial 
nouns, of asking, teaching, selling, buying, giving, 
etc. " Send the multitude away that they may go 
and buy themselves bread," that is, Buy bread for 
themselves, etc. ; the relative for being understood, 
as it could hardly be expected that they should buy 
themselves, but bread for themselves. See Barnard's 
Gram., pp. 133, 134. 

The following examples involve the four preceding 
observations. Correct the errors, and parse the words 
involved, in 

Exercise 121. 

1. Yital air was a discovery of Priestley. 2. What went ye out 
for to see ? 3. They bid him to attend. 4. Music was taught I 
by John. 5. It was a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton. 6. By 
observing of truth, you will command respect. 7. Help me to get 
my task. 8. Having given he, from the window, some token of 
her remembrance. 



SAME WORD, ETC. 187 

THE SAME WORD DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 
Section 3. 
Point out the various parts of speech to which the 
italicized words belong, in 

Exercise 122. 

1. Do you hear that noise, still ? 2. Mary is a more beautiful 
girl than Sarah ; but Sarah behaves more beautifully. 3. The soil 
of Cuba is most fertile. 4. Charles advances most rapidly. 5. Most 
men are mistaken in their pursuit of happiness. 5£. The more we 
have, the more we want ? 6. Where much is given, much will be 
required. 7. Much labor fatigues us. 8. Thou art much 
mightier than I. 9. He is very kind. 10. He was very kindly 
received. 11. I will take what you send me. 12. What strange 
things he said. 13. What do you want ? 14. In what manner he 
succeeded, is unknown to me. 15. What ! take my money, my 
life too ! 16. The more we are blessed, the more grateful we 
should be. 17. Better is a little with content than a great deal 
with anxiety. 18. The gay and the dissolute think little of the 
miseries which are stealing softly after them. 19. I have not seen 
him since Christmas. 20. I will go, since you desire it. 21. I 
saw him long since. 22. He was neglected, notwithstanding his 
merit. 23. She is respected, notwithstanding she is poor. 
24. I will go, as you have requested me. 25. Do as I tell you. 
26. Such men as him should be sent off. 27. The fugitives were 
driven off the precipice. 28. I don't like you : be off! 29. The 
off horse performs well. 30. He stood on the deck. 30^. He 
rested awhile, and then went on. 31. Charge, Chester, charge ! — 
On! Stanly — On! 32. Her home is on the deep. 33. We 
should patronize home manufactures. 34. James went home. — 
Pierce. 35. Either man can do the work. 36. I will either go, 
or send my son. 37. Webster wrote a dictionary. 38. He sells corn 
at a dollar a bushel. 39. He can debate on neither side of the 
question. 40. The boy could neither read nor write. 41. We 
saw neither of them. 42. We have more than heart could desire. 
43. Beelzebub, than whom none higher sat. 44. They labored 
hard till night. 45. Give attention to reading, till I come. 

46. Each man should provide honestly for his own wants. 

47. Each sought to comfort the other. 48. James sold his 
apples for a cent each (i. e., separately, or respectively). 

Promiscuous examples involving all the previous rules, 
some of which may be parsed. 

Exercise 123. 
1. To fear no eye, and to suspect no tongue, are the great pre- 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

rogative of innocence. 2. Those which desire to be safe should be 
careful to do what is right. 3. Exactly like so many puppets, 
who are moved by wires. — Blair's RheL, p. 462. 4. Such seed 
are likely to take soonest and deepest root. 5. Russia is the 
largest of any other country in Europe. 6. Profane swearing is, 
of all vices, the more inexcusable. 7. Boy, what is them shucks 
worth ? 8. He is passing from a earthly to a heavenly diadem. 

9. These kind of verbs are more expressive than their radicals. 

10. Do you see those books lying on this table? 11. A mans 
manners frequently influence his fortune. 12. Of all vices, covet- 
ousness enters deepest into the soul. 13. The nightingale's voice 
is the most sweetest in the grove. 14. Yirtue confers the su- 
premest dignity upon. man and it should be his chiefest desire. 
15. These curiosities, we have imported from China, are similar to 
those which were some time ago brought from Africa. 16. Wo- 
men talks better than men, from the superior shape of their 

tongues. Gardner's Music of Nature, p. 27. 17. William and 

Daniel both writes a good hand. 18. Either thou or I art greatly 
mistaken. 19. Ye hath he quickened. 20. Who is she married 
to ? 21. The fair sex, whose task is not to mingle in the labors of 
public life, has its own part assigned it to act. 22. Whoever 
entertains such an opinion, he judges erroneously. 23. An Adverb 
is a part of speech joined to a verb, an adjective, and sometimes 
another adverb, to express some quality or circumstance respecting 

it, Murray's Def. of Adverb. 24. Thou and I and James are 

attached to their country. 25. I and my sister, as well as my 
brother, are daily employed in their respective occupation. 
26. The author or his works is in fault, and he should be con- 
demned. 27. The conspiracy was the easier discovered from its 
being known to many. 28. Professing regard and to act dif- 
ferently, discover a base mind. 29. The people has no opinion of 
its own. 30. The fleet is all arrived and moored in safety. 31. If 
he will not hear his best friends, whom shall be sent to admonish 
him. 32. Every plant, and every flower, proclaims their Maker's 
praise. 33. That superficial scholar and critic have given abun- 
dant proof that they knew not the character of the Hebrew 
language. 34. That occurred during William's and Mary's reign. 

35. This gained the kings, as well as the peoples, approbation. 

36. Your friend and patron, who were here yesterday, have called 
again to-day. 37. No wife, no mother, no child, soothe his cares. 

Exercise 124. 

38. Considering, in some degree, they as enemies to me, and he 
as a suspicious friend, I avoided both him and them. 39. Who 
has she promised to marry ? 40. There is not much prospect of 
his gaining they and we to his party. 41. The sun had arose 



PARSING EXERCISES. 189 

before I commenced my journey. 42. I seen him when he done it. 
43. By living temperate, life may be prolonged. 44. Time passes 
swift, though it appears to move slow. 45. Just numbers are in 
unison to the human mind. 46. Her being sick, our class lost 
the premium. 47. The king dismissed his minister without any in- 
quiry, who had never before committed so unjust an action. 48. 
" This is the most useful art which man can possess." — Murray's 
Key, 8vo., p. 275. 49. "When prepositions are subjoined to 
nouns, they are generally the same which are subjoined to the verbs 
from which the nouns are derived." — Priestley's Gram., p. 157. 

50. " The princes and states who had neglected or favored the 
growth of this power." — Bolingbroke on History, p. 222. 

51. " Because the nations among whom they took their rise, were 
not savage." — Murray's Gram*, p. 113. 52. Adopted by the 
Goths in their pronouncing the Greek. 53. This vessel, of which 
you spoke yesterday, sailed in the evening. 54. More rain falls in 
the first two summer months than in the first two winter ones ; 
but it makes a much greater show upon the earth in those than in 
these. 55. "The two best of the foregoing two dozen may 
serve," etc. — G. Brown's Gram, of Grammars, p. 319, Obs. 7. 
56. Charles has grown considerable since I have seen him the last 
time. 57. I sat him a chair, and he set down. 

Exercise 125. 
58. To excel in knowledge are honorable ; but to be ignorant 
are base. 59. To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use ex- 
ercise in the open air, and to preserve the mind free from 
tumultuous emotions, is the best preservatives of health. 60. To 
speak impatiently to servants, or to treat any one disrespectfully, 
are certainly unkind. 61 . "I shall here present you with a scale 
of derivations."— Buck's Gram., p. 81. 62. He is a subject of the 
emperor. 63. He durst not to speak his own mind. 64. William 
asked I a delicate question. 

The following four exercises, involving many critical 
points, should be carefully parsed : 

Exercise 126. 
1. The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man, and was 
bestowed on him by his beneficent Creator, for the greatest and 
most excellent uses ; but, alas ! how often do we pervert it to the 
worst of purposes. 2. Whoever lives to see this republic forsake 
her moral and literary institutions, will behold her liberties pros- 
trated. 3. What man is that ? 4. Ambition, interest, honor, all 
concurred. 5. Jabal was the father of such as dwell in tents. — 
Gen,, iv, p. 20. 6. " Some talk of subjects they do not understand ; 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

others praise virtue who do not practice it." — Johnson. 7. Buy 
Liverpool deep blue earthen pitchers. 8. What a strange run of 
luck I had to-day. — Columbian Orator, p. 293. 9. He who 
buys what he does not need, will often need what he cannot 
buy. — Student's Manual, p. 290. 10. Sensible people ex- 
press no thoughts but what make some figure. — Kames, p. 107. 
11. Whatever sounds are difficult in pronunciation, are, in the 
same proportion, harsh and painful to the ear. — Blair's Rhet., 
p. 121. 12. Elizabeth publicly threatened that she would have 
the head of whosoever had advised it. — Hume. 13. Let states 
that aim at greatness take heed how their nobility and gentlemen 
multiply too fast. 14. They that are whole need not a physician, 
but they that are sick. 

Exercise 127. 
1. Bless them that curse you. 2. We are to blame for eating 
these fish. — Anarcharsis, 6, 272. 3. Here are erected a fort and 
a gallows. — Lusiad, 1, 134. 4. There is such a thing as being 
frivolous over much. 5. Alexander pushed his conquests as far as 
the river Indus. 6. A proclamation was issued pursuant to 
advice of council. 7. He read it both ways. 8. The audience 
may consider themselves dismissed. 9. More paid than could get 
seats. 10. Much as man desires, a little will answer. 11. Stand 
aside, John. 12. It was past midnight, and the moon had gone 
down. — Mob Cap — Mrs. C. L. Hentz. 13. I was born free as 
Caesar. 14. Drunkenness is a most degrading vice. 

15. "Far in a wild, remote from public view, 

From youth to age a reverend hermit grew." 

Exercise 128. 
1. As for this man, we know not whence he is. 2. Harriet 
writes somewhat often. 3. Hiram writes rather elegantly. 
4. Seth came home last July. 5. George came home a-foot. 
6. Henry journeyed west. 7. John sold his oranges for three 
cents apiece. 8. He sold his land for five dollars an acre. 
9. He works for two dollars a day. 10. What is the meaning of 
this lady's holding up her train? — Priestley's Gram., p. 69. 
11. The prince's murder excited their indignation. 12. They 
live happily and contentedly together. 13. He sold them at a 
dollar apiece. 14. That house is large enough. 15. Live well, 
that you may die well. 16. Brutus killed Caesar, him who had 
been his friend. 17. The clergy began to withdraw themselves 
from the temporal courts. — Blackstone's Com. — Introduction. 
18. Mine eyes beheld the messenger divine. — Lusiad, b. 2. 19. So 
let thine enemies perish. 20. The law never speaks but to com- 
mand. — Paley, Phi. 3. 21. We hear nothing of causing the blind 



PARSING EXERCISES. 191 

to see, the lame to walk, the deaf to hear, the lepers to be cleansed. 
— Paley's Evidences. 

22. "What can ennoble sots, or slaves, or cowards ? 
Alas ! not all the blood of all the Howards." 

Exercise 129. 
1. A quiet conscience is the greatest good. 2. To be blind is 
calamitous. 3. See yon high mountain. 4. The former expres- 
sion may be as correct as the latter one. 5. The desire of being 
happy reigns in all hearts. 6. That man appears happy. 7. These 
apples taste sour. 8. " You don't care sixpence whether he was 
wet or dry." — Johnson. 9. The post stood a little while. 10. He 
is very much mistaken. 11. Behold the place where they laid him. 

12. When Crusoe saw the savages, he became greatly alarmed. 

13. You have overcome envy with glory, which is very difficult. 

14. "Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted." 

15. Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul. — Goldsmith. 

16. By studying the scriptures, he has become wise. 17. " Opin- 
ions and ceremonies (which) they would die for" 18. Whatever 
purifies, fortifies also, the heart. — English Reader, p. 23. 19. Go 
I must, whatever may ensue. 20. Whoever steals my purse, 
steals trash. 

Exercise 130. 
1. Duncan has gone home. 2. James took whatever provisions 
were necessary for the voyage. 

3. " Calm as an infant as it sweetly sleens, 

Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul." — Goldsmith. 

4. Whatever conflicts with the truth is false. 5. James is con- 
siderably less than two miles beyond Boston. 6. He is ashamed of 
what he has done. 7. Now-a-days he visits us frequently. 8. All 
join to guard what each desires to gain. — Pope. 9. The last 
shall be first, and the first last. — Matt., xx, 16. 10. To a studious 
man, action is a relief. 11. The governor went a hunting to-day. 
] 2. They went aside to talk over matters. 13. They arrived too 
late to save the ship ; for the violent current had set her more and 
more upon the bank. — Irving. 14. Statesmen scoffed at virtue, 
and she avenged herself by bringing their counsels to naught. — 
Bancroft. 15. Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God. 
— Coleridge. 16. Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to 
Hope. 17. The dog is remarkably various in his species. 18. The 
cat, as she beholds the light, draws the ball of her eye small and 
long. 19. It is delightful to see brothers and sisters living in unin- 
terrupted love to the end of their days. 20. The Kenite tribe, the 
descendants of Hobab. 21. I am anxious to write. 22. A great 
number of women was present. 23. We conversed about it a 
great deal. 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



24. ' * Self -love and reason to one end aspire, 

Pain their aversion, pleasure their desire ; 
But greedy that [self-love] its object would devour, 
This [reason] taste the honey and not wound the flower." — Pope. 

25. " Some place the bliss in action, some in ease, 

Those call it pleasure, and contentment these." — Pope. 

26. " The boy stood on the burning deck, 

Whence all but him had fled."— Hemans. 

27. " And see where surly winter passes off 

Far to the north, and calls his ruffian blasts." — Thomson. 

28. " From bright'ning fields of ether fair disclosed, 

Child of the sun, refulgent summer comes." — Thomson. 

29. "I find the total of their hopes and fears, 

Dreams, empty dreams. — Cowper's Task, p. 71. 

The two following exercises involve many ofthepeculi-. 
arities of this system, and they should be thoroughly parsed : 
Exercise 131. 
1. The wall is three feet high. 2. His son is eight years old. 
3. My knife is worth a shilling. 4. She is worth him and all his 
connections. 5. He has been there three times. 6. The hat cost 
ten dollars. 7. The load weighs a tun. 8. The spar measures 
ninety feet [The eight preceding sentences have been classed as 
Idioms, anomalies, and intricacies. See Kirkham's Gram., p. 
162.] 9. A sensible wife would soon smile him into good humor. 
— Addison. 10. Mary's kitten is very playful ; it is quite a pet 
with the whole family. 11. A truly good man worships God. 12. 
The hat becomes him very much. 13. " He mourned no recreant 
friend, no mistress coy." — Beattie. 14. He walked his horse all 
the way. 15. The company danced cotillons. 16. The boys play 
ball after school. 17. The teacher looked him sternly in the face. 
18. John, sit down, or stand around. 19. If he ask a fish, will he 
give him a serpent? 20. Owls see very well in the dark. 

Exercise 132. 
1. We is a pronoun. 2. He began to write. 3. He will begin 
to read soon. 

4. " Love still pursues an ever devious race, 
True to the winding lineaments of grace." 

5. A boy so diligent and moral as John, is sure to prosper. 

6. There is none good, but one, that is God. — Matt., xix, 17. 

7. " The excellent Prescott has rejoiced us with a new work." — 
Humboldt. 8. Your lot and mine, in this respect, have been very 
different. — Cowper's Let. 38. 9. The horse is fifteen hands high. 
10. From whom are descended some of the most respectable fami- 
lies in Virginia. — Hale's History. 11, Thou hast been wiser all 
the time than me. — Southey's Letters- 12. Pensive I sat me 
down. — Milton. 



1G, 1! 



